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The  Romance  of 
Modern  Engineering 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

Boston  Library  Consortium  IVIember  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/romanceofmoderneOOwill 


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The  Romance  of 
Modern   Engineering 

Containing  Interesting  Descriptions  in  Non -Technical 

Language  of  the  Nile  Dam,  the  Panama  Canal, 

the  Tower  Bridge,  the  Brooklyn  Bridge,  the 

Trans-Siberian  Railway,  the  Niagara  Falls 

Power  Co.,  Bermuda  Floating  Dock 

etc.  etc. 


By 
Archibald  WilliamsJD 

Author  of 
"The  Romance  of  Modern  Invention" 


With  many  Illustrations 


Second  Edition 


Philadelphia 

J.   B.  Lippincott   Company 

London:    C.    Arthur    Pearson,    Ltd. 
1904 


BOSTON  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 

CHESTNUT  HILL  MASS. 


c. 


■^ 


^ 


h' 


BY    THE    SAME    AUTHOR 

Uniform  <with  this  Volume 

THE   ROMANCE   OF 

MODERN   INVENTION 

This  volume  deals  in  a  popular  way  with  all  the 
latest  inventions,  such  as  Air-ships,  Mono- 
Rail,  Wireless  Telegraphy,  Liquid  Air,  etc. 

With   25    Illustrations.      Gilt  edges. 
Price  $1.50  net. 

"There  is  probably  no  living  specimen  of  a  boy  who 
will  not  find  this  admirable  volume  a  source  of  keen 
enjoyment. " — Standard. 


THE    ROMANCE    OF 
MODERN    LOCOMOTION 

Containing   Interesting  Descriptions  in   Non- 
Technical  Language  of  the  Rise  and 
Development  of  the  Railroad 
Systems  in  all  Parts  of 
the  World 

With   25    Illustrations.       Price  $1.50  net. 


Pref; 


ace 


As  it  would  be  impossible  to  treat,  in  the  compass 
of  a  few  hundred  pages,  all  the  great  engineering 
feats  of  modern  times  without  reducing  individual 
accounts  to  uninteresting  brevity,  the  author  has 
preferred,  where  selection  is  possible,  to  take  typical 
instances  of  engineering  practice,  and,  by  the  aid 
of  comparatively  detailed  descriptions,  to  place  the 
reader  in  a  position  to  appreciate  them  and  similar 
undertakings. 

He  desires  here  gratefully  to  acknowledge  the 
help  received  from  engineers  and  other  gentlemen 
professionally  connected  with  the  great  works  that 
are  the  subjects  of  the  following  chapters,  and  to 
thank  the  proprietors  of  certain  publications  for 
permission  to  make  use  of  the  same. 


1904. 


Contents 

CHAP.  PAGB 

I.  The  Harnessing  of  Niagara       .        .        .      ii 
II.  The  Taming  of  the  Nile    .         .        .        .34 

III.  Dams  and  Aqueducts  .        .        .        .        .55 

IV.  The  Forth  Bridge 82 

V.  The  Tower  Bridge no 

VI.  American  Bridges 127 

VII.  The  Trans-Siberian  Railway      .        .         .139 

VIII.  Cairo  to  the  Cape 166 

IX.  The  Loftiest  Railway  in  the  World        .     182 
X.  City  Railways       .        .        .        .        .        .190 

XL  The  Severn  Tunnel 204 

XII.  The  Simplon  Tunnel   .        ,        .        .        .     225 

XIII.  The  Manchester  Ship  Canal     .        .        .     245 

XIV.  The  Panama  Canal 267 

XV.  Harbours  of  Refuge  .        .        .        .        .292 

XVI.  Ocean  Leviathans 308 

XVII.  Floating  Docks 333 

XVIII.  The  Romance  of  Petroleum       .        .        .  349 

XIX.  Artesian  Wells    ......  366 

7 


List   of  Illustrations 


1.  The  Tower  Bridge  .        .        .        .        .    Frontispiece 

2.  General  View  of  the  Nile  Dam  .     To  face  page     34 

3.  Nile  Dam  Sluices  Open 

4.  The  Norton  Water  Tower    . 

5.  Forth  Bridge  .... 

6.  Forth  Bridge  :   Fife  Cantilever 

7.  Brooklyn  Bridge    . 

8.  A  Giant  Lathe 

9.  The  "Baikal"  Ice  Ferry 

10.  Telegraph  Line:  Cape  to  Cairo 

11.  Hand -Car    on    the    Lima -Oroya 

Railway       .... 

12.  The    "Tube"  in    Course   of   Con 

struction      .... 

13.  Section  of  the  Severn  Tunnel 

14.  Manchester  Ship  Canal 

15.  View  of  a  Cutting  on  the  Panama 


Canal 


50 
66 
82 

TOO 
130 
136 

184 

196 
212 
248 


272 


List  of  Illustrations 

i6.  American    Plan    for    Completing 

Panama  Canal     .        .        .         .     To  face  page  288 

17.  A  Titan  Crane  at  South  Shields        „        „       298 

18.  A  Giant  Crane  at  Vera  Cruz      .        „        „      304 

19.  The  Celtic  in  Dry  Dock      .        .        „        „      310 

20.  The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  IL  in  the 

Shipyard »        »       320 

21.  Bermuda     Floating     Dock     Sub- 

merged          n        •»•>      336 

22.  Bermuda     Floating    Dock    Clear 

of  the  Water     ....„„       344 

23.  Petroleum    "Spouters"    on    Fire 

AT  Baku       .         .         .        .        .         •,<,        „       360 

24.  Artesian  Well  in  Lincolnshire    .        „        „       368 


10 


The  Romance  of  Modern 
Engineering 

CHAPTER   I 

THE  HARNESSING  OF  NIAGARA 

It  is  indeed  hard  to  conceive  that  any  one  in  full 
possession  of  his  senses  could  stand  unmoved  in  the 
presence  of  a  great  waterfall.  The  sight  of  huge 
masses  of  water,  tumbling  as  it  were  from  the  blue  of 
the  very  heavens,  dissolving  into  arrowy  streams  as 
they  descend  before  the  final  crash  into  the  mist- 
laden  gulf  below,  must  appeal  even  to  the  most 
brutalised  mind  by  its  sheer  majesty  and  magni- 
ficence. 

What  then  are  the  thoughts  of  those  whose  emo- 
tions are  strings  easily  attuned  to  the  grander  moods 
of  Nature? 

The  first  impression  is  doubtless  one  of  awe,  called 
forth  by  the  involuntary  comparison  between  our 
own  insignificance  and  the  immensity  of  the  force 
before  us.  What  right  have  we,  frail  creatures  of 
a  day,  to  speak  of  lordship  of  creation  face  to  face 
with  this  watery  avalanche  that  has  thundered  down 
for  centuries,  nay  thousands  of  years  ?     What  can 

II 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

human  art  avail  against  the  violence  of  those  cease- 
less, seething  torrents,  stunning  our  ears  with  sound, 
dazzling  our  eyes  to  weariness  by  their  motion  ? 

Then  follow  what  we  may  call  the  secondary  emo- 
tions. The  poet  feels  the  inspiration  of  descriptive 
verse  :  the  artist  reaches  for  his  pencil.  The  engineer, 
or  man  of  science,  not  less  alive,  perhaps,  to  the  artistic 
beauty  of  the  scene,  yet  from  habit  and  profession 
sees  here  a  mighty  source  of  Power,  of  motive  force 
to  drive  the  myriad  whirring  wheels  conjured  into 
being  by  civilisation  and  its  needs. 

"  I  look  forward,"  said  Lord  Kelvin  at  Niagara  Falls, 
"  to  the  time  when  the  whole  water  from  Lake  Erie 
will  find  its  way  to  the  lower  level  of  Lake  Ontario 
through  machinery,  doing  more  good  for  the  world 
than  that  great  benefit  which  we  now  possess  in 
the  contemplation  of  the  splendid  scene  now  pre- 
sented by  the  waterfalls  of  Niagara."  On  another 
occasion  another  famous  electrician,  Sir  William 
Siemens,  looked  upon  the  scene  with  similar  thoughts. 
**  The  stupendous  rush  of  waters  filled  him  with  fear 
and  admiration,  as  it  does  every  one  who  comes 
within  the  sound  of  its  mighty  roar.  But  he  saw  in 
it  something  far  beyond  what  was  obvious  to  the 
multitude,  for  his  scientific  mind  could  not  help  view- 
ing it  as  an  inexpressible  manifestation  of  mechanical 
energy — and  he  at  once  began  to  speculate  whether 
it  was  absolutely  necessary  that  the  whole  of  this 
glorious  magnitude  of  power  should  be  wasted  in 
dashing  itself  into  the  chasm  below — whether  it  was 

12 


The  Harnessing  of  Niagara 

not  possible  that  at  least  some  might  be  practically 
utilised  for  the  benefit  of  mankind."  ^ 

It  seems  as  if  we  may  trace  the  finger  of  a  perverse 
Fate  in  the  necessity  that  drives  us,  in  an  age  when 
man  is  peculiarly  appreciative  of  the  beauties  of  nature, 
to  invade  with  our  instruments  and  machines  some  of 
the  fairest  spots  on  earth.  To  obtain  a  good  water 
supply  we  throw  a  huge  mass  of  masonry  across  the 
Nile,  and  dam  lovely  valleys;  to  furnish  us  with 
timber  stately  forests  are  levelled ;  to  yield  us  coal 
and  iron  smiling  country-sides  are  disfigured  by 
towering  chimneys,  and  the  atmosphere  filled  with 
a  foul  reek.  And  that  our  source  of  energy  may  be 
in  proportion  to  our  wants  the  rushing  mountain 
stream  in  Norway,  Switzerland,  Italy,  France,  and 
elsewhere  is  hemmed  in  by  walls  and  weirs,  and  its 
only  way  to  freedom  lies  through  huge  pipes  to 
whirling  turbines.  Much  as  we  must  regret  these 
things,  we  know  that  they  are  inevitable.  Many  of  the 
conditions  of  life  are  changing.  To-day  that  nation 
is  ascendant  which  is  not  necessarily  hardiest,  or 
numbers  the  bravest  hearts  and  stoutest  arms,  but, 
as  we  are  told,  that  one  which  can  produce  the 
cheapest  ton  of  steel.  In  other  words,  wealth  holds 
the  balances  :  wealth  depends  on  commerce ;  com- 
merce comes  to  those  who  are  able  to  hold  their  own 
against  the  world  in  the  fierce  struggle  of  economical 
production.    To  carry  the  train  a  little  further,  econo- 

»  From  William  Pole's  "  Life  of  Sir  William  Siemens." 
^3 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

mical  production  is  based  upon  a  plentiful  supply  of 
cheap  energy,  whether  in  the  form  of  motive  force 
or  heat.  The  manufacturer  is  so  eager  to  clip  off  a 
decimal  of  a  cent  here  or  a  fraction  of  a  penny  there 
from  the  cost  at  which  he  can  produce  his  goods, 
that  any  method  for  cheapening  the  prime  mover — 
Power — of  his  factories  is  gladly  welcomed.  The 
engineer  is  always  busy  bringing  the  latest  appliances 
of  science  to  his  aid.  We  hear  of  enormous  steam- 
engines,  many  times  more  efficient  than  those  of  half 
a  century  ago  ;  of  great  machines  actuated  by  explo- 
sions of  gas — formidable  competitors  to  Giant  Steam  : 
and  Water-Power  in  its  newest  developments  is  fast 
pushing  its  way  to  the  front,  threatening  both  steam 
and  explosive  vapour.  Coal-fields  are  exhaustible, 
oil-fields  are  exhaustible,  but  a  river  ''flows  on  for 
ever."  Once  in  harness,  water  becomes  man's  servant 
for  the  ages. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  new  lease  of  life  given  to 
water-power,  we  may  expect  to  see  great  changes  in 
the  industrial  world.  Hitherto  trade  and  manufacture 
have  gone  to  those  countries  which  possess  well- 
worked  coal-fields.  In  the  future  a  bid  for  supremacy 
will  be  made  by  those  districts  where  the  force  of 
gravitation,  as  represented  by  falling  water,  may  be 
cheaply  transformed  into  other  forms  of  energy. 
Numerous  experiments  and  statistics  prove  that  the 
steam-engine  has  almost  reached  its  limit  of  economy ; 
we  cannot  expect  to  get  much  more  power  from  every 
pound  of  coal  we  burn  than  we  do  now.    The  cost  of 

14 


The  Harnessing  of  Niagara 

raising  that  pound  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth  tends 
to  increase  as  the  supply  decreases. 

Many  great  water-power  installations  are  already  in 
full  working  :  on  the  Rhone,  the  Rhine,  the  Adda,  the 
Reuss,  the  Aar.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  horse- 
power are  daily  produced  at  the  turbines,  and  flashed 
noiselessly  to  thousands  of  machines,  through  great 
cables  pulsating  with  electricity. 

But  at  Niagara,  the  electrical  Mecca  of  the  world, 
Nature  has  furnished  mankind  with  the  most  magnifi- 
cent of  power-houses.  Here  the  overflow  from  four 
lakes,  or  rather  inland  seas,  linked  so  as  to  form  one 
huge  reservoir  of  90,000  square  miles,  is  herded  by 
cliffs  into  a  narrow  channel  and  compelled  to  make  a 
magnificent  leap  of  165  sheer  feet  into  the  lower  river. 
The  figures  are  almost  appalling.  A  solid  wall  of 
water  20  feet  deep,  representing  275,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  passes  over  the  Falls  continuously.  Its  daily 
force,  some  seven  million  horse-power,  equals  that  of 
the  latent  power  of  the  200,000  tons  of  coal  mined 
every  twenty-four  hours  throughout  the  world.  Think 
of  the  thousands  upon  thousands  of  stately  ships  fur- 
rowing the  ocean,  the  myriads  of  locomotives  that 
flash  over  the  iron  ways,  the  huge  boilers  bringing 
movement  to  countless  factories;  their  combined 
average  energy  is  not  equal  to  that  running  to  waste 
at  the  "  Roaring  of  the  Waters." 

Now,  were  Niagara  situated  in  some  desolate, 
sterile,  Arctic  region,  the  eyes  of  engineers  would  still 
turn  longingly  to  its  enormous  power.     Nature  has, 

15 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

however,  dealt  kindly  with  the  human  race  in  placing 
the  Falls  where  they  are  :  in  a  healthful  country  teem- 
ing with  natural  resources,  among  peoples  of  super- 
abundant energy.  It  would  be  almost  less  a  matter 
for  surprise  were  the  waters  to  leap  upwards,  than 
that  the  enterprising  American  and  Canadian  should 
fail  to  utilise  the  vast  power  flowing  past  his  doors. 
Niagara  Falls  are  the  right  thing  in  the  right  place. 
The  time  has  come  when  toll  can  be  taken  of  those 
rushing  waters.  Electricity,  the  Genius  of  the  twen- 
tieth century,  has  long  burst  its  swaddling  bands,  and 
can  be  united  to  water  in  a  most  advantageous  part- 
nership. 

Ever  since  the  first  saw-mill  was  set  up  at  Niagara 
in  1725,  the  idea  of  subjecting  some  part  of  the  enor- 
mous power  of  the  Falls  to  industrial  uses  has  stirred 
the  inventive  faculty  of  engineers  and  manufacturers 
Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  they  cast  about  for  a* 
means  of  harnessing  this  lavish  provision  of  nature, 
but  the  scientific  knowledge  of  the  world  had  not  yet 
sufficiently  advanced.  In  the  nineteenth  century 
steam  and  steam-power  made  such  progress  that 
manufacturers  quitted  the  riverside  for  the  coal-field. 
But  the  advantages  of  water  were  not  forgotten.  In 
1842  we  find  Augustus  Porter,  one  of  the  principal 
proprietors  of  Niagara,  proposing  a  system  of  canals 
to  the  high  bluffs  overlooking  the  Falls,  whence  the 
water  might  fall  over  large  wheels  to  drive  the 
machinery  of  mills.  As  a  result  of  continuous  ne- 
gotiations a  syndicate  of  gentlemen  obtained  a  right  to 

16 


The  Harnessing  of  Niagara 

construct  a  canal  35  feet  wide,  8  feet  deep,  and  4400 
feet  long,  from  the  water  of  the  Upper  Niagara  River 
to  these  bluffs,  where,  by  1885,  the  available  capacity 
of  the  canal  was  being  converted  into  some  10,000 
horse-power. 

Still  greater  projects  were  to  follow.  Mr.  Thomas 
Evershed,  an  engineer  who  has  done  noble  work  in 
protecting  the  Falls  from  utilitarian  desecration,  was 
called  upon  the  same  year  (1885)  to  develop  a  plan 
whereby  the  beauty  of  the  Falls  might  be  preserved, 
and  at  the  same  time  a  large  bulk  of  water  turned  to 
practical  purposes.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  tapping 
the  Niagara  above  the  Falls,  precipitating  the  water 
into  a  huge  pit,  where  machinery  would  be  stationed, 
and  carrying  the  waste  away  through  a  large  tunnel, 
nearly  ij  miles  long,  to  an  outlet  below  the  Falls. 
His  plan  was  strongly  opposed  as  impracticable,  but 
in  spite  of  discouragement  eight  gentlemen  of  Niagara 
obtained  from  the  New  York  Legislature  in  1886  a 
special  charter,  granting  the  right  to  take  from  the 
upper  river  sufficient  water  to  develop  200,000  horse- 
power. A  second  concession,  of  a  later  date,  from 
the  Canadian  Government,  permits  the  same  Com- 
pany— now  known  as  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Com- 
pany— to  draw  from  the  Canadian  side  an  additional 
quarter  miUion  of  horse-power.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  the  difference  of  level  made  at  the  edge  of  the 
Falls  by  the  withdrawal  of  all  this  water  will  be  but  a 
few  inches,  not  enough  to  detract  in  any  way  from 
the  scenic  effect  of  Niagara. 

17  B 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

The  Company  also  bought  land  extending  for  about 
2I  miles  along  the  river,  intending  to  lease  or  sell  it 
for  factories  as  soon  as  the  plant  was  in  working 
order,  and  to  erect  on  it  a  residential  quarter  for  the 
operatives. 

On  paper  the  Company's  prospects  were  decidedly 
attractive.  Their  total  horse-power  represented  more 
than  a  third  of  the  total  produced  by  water  in  the 
States  in  1880.  Niagara  was  within  a  night's  journey 
of  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia,  Chicago, 
Pittsburg,  Toronto,  and  Montreal.  Within  a  radius 
of  400  miles  dwelt  one-fifth  of  the  population  of  the 
States.  It  was  the  natural  port  of  the  great  Lakes. 
It  also  lay  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  great  coal- 
fields. This  last  consideration  raised  the  question — 
"  Could  Niagara  power  compete  successfully  with 
steam-made  power  ? "  After  careful  consideration 
the  Company  decided  that  it  certainly  could,  and 
might  even  be  carried  at  a  profit  into  the  coal-fields 
themselves. 

As  soon  as  great  financiers  had  lent  their  names 
and  support  to  the  undertaking,  the  officers  and 
directors  of  the  Company  proceeded  to  attack  the 
problem  of  how  best  to  convert  the  water  they  had 
permission  to  control  into  energy.  The  problem, 
says  Mr.  L.  B.  Stillwell,  electrical  engineer  of  the 
Company,  was  one  ^'  without  precedent  in  its  magni- 
tude, and  almost  without  parallel  in  its  significance." 
The  promoters  of  the  scheme  made  up  their  minds  to 
spare  no  expense  or  trouble  to  ensure  the  installation 

18 


The  Harnessing  of  Niagara 

of  the  best  machinery  in  the  best  possible  manner 
then  known.  They  called  in  to  their  aid  leading 
engineers  and  electricians  of  all  countries,  thus  ex- 
hibiting a  breadth  of  policy  superior  to  all  motives 
of  national  prejudice. 

As  regards  the  method  of  supplying  and  carrying 
off  the  power  water,  it  was  finally  decided  to  con- 
struct a  surface  canal  above  the  Falls,  250  feet  wide  at 
the  mouth,  and  running  into  the  land  for  a  distance 
of  1500  feet  to  the  site  of  the  power-houses,  the  latter 
to  contain  eventually  machinery  capable  of  delivering 
50,000  horse-power.  A  wheel-pit  would  there  be  dug 
to  a  depth  of  178  feet,  and  connected  at  the  bottom 
with  a  tunnel  7000  feet  in  length,  having  a  slope  of 
6  feet  in  a  1000,  and  a  maximum  horse-shoe  section  of 
21  feet  by  18  feet  10  inches.  Water  would  flow 
through  the  tunnel  to  the  outlet  below  the  Falls  at 
a  rate  of  a  little  less  than  20  miles  an  hour. 

The  questions  of  machinery  and  power  distribution 
were  not  settled  so  easily.  In  the  first  place,  the 
forms  of  turbine  most  popular  at  that  time  did  not 
appear  convenient  for  the  installation  in  question  ;  in 
the  second,  given  a  most  efficient  turbine,  how  was 
the  5000  horse-power  developed  by  it  to  be  brought 
to  the  surface  many  feet  above  ?  in  the  third,  how 
was  the  power,  when  delivered  at  the  surface,  to  be 
distributed  in  the  neighbourhood  and  at  a  distance  ? 

The  Company  did  a  very  wise  thing.  Instead  of 
sitting  down  and  trying  to  think  the  matter  out  by 
themselves,   they   appointed   an    International    Com- 

19 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

mission,  consisting  of  Sir  William  Thomson  (now 
Lord  Kelvin)  as  chairman,  Dr.  Coleman  Sellers,  of 
Philadelphia,  Lieut.-Col.  Turrettini,  of  Geneva,  Prof. 
G.  Mascart,  of  the  College  of  France,  and  Prof. 
William  Cawthorne  Unwin,  Dean  of  the  Central 
Institute  of  the  Guilds  of  the  City  of  London.  This 
commission,  established  in  London,  was  empowered 
to  obtain  records  of  all  sorts  that  should  help  to  solve 
the  three  problems  now  before  the  Directors  of  the 
Company,  and  to  award  |22,ooo  (;^440o)  in  prizes. 
"  Inquiries  and  examinations  concerning  the  best 
known  existing  methods  of  development  and  trans- 
mission in  England,  France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy, 
were  made  personally  by  the  officers  and  engineers  of 
the  Company,  and  competitive  plans  were  received 
from  twenty  carefully  selected  engineers,  designers, 
manufacturers,  and  users  of  power  in  England  and 
the  Continent  of  Europe,  and  also  in  America."  ^ 

The  first  important  result  of  this  commission  was 
that  Messrs.  Faesch  &  Piccard,  of  Geneva,  were  selected 
to  design  the  turbines.  The  character  of  a  turbine  is 
probably  widely  known  to  the  public,  but  to  prevent 
any  possible  misconception  we  may  here  state  that  a 
turbine  is  composed  of  a  number  of  vanes  set  spoke- 
wise  round  an  axis,  and  enclosed  in  a  cylinder  in  such 
a  fashion  that  all  water  passing  through  the  cylinder 
must  push  the  vanes  aside  in  its  course,  imparting  to 
them  and  their  axis  a  circular  motion.     In  order  to 

1  Cassie/s  Magazine* 
20 


The  Harnessing  of  Niagara 

make  the  water  more  effective,  fixed  vanes  are  attached 
rigidly  to  the  cylinder  v^alls  at  a  short  distance  from 
the  moving  vanes,  so  as  to  deflect  the  water  on  to  the 
latter  at  the  most  efficient  angle.  The  turbine  prin- 
ciple has  lately  been  employed  largely  with  steam  to 
drive  torpedo-destroyers  and  merchant  vessels  at  high 
speed,  and  to  supply  motive  force  for  dynamos  and 
the  ventilating  fans  of  mines. 

The  Niagara  turbines  are  about  five  feet  in  diameter, 
and  have  a  vertical  axis.  A  peculiarly  ingenious 
feature  of  their  construction  is  that  they  are  made  in 
two  storeys,  as  it  were,  the  top  vanes  the  larger,  and 
that  the  w^ater  from  the  penstocks,  or  supply  pipes,  is 
made  to  enter  between  the  two  sets.  The  pressure 
against  the  upper  vanes  being  greater  than  that 
against  the  lower  vanes,  the  turbine  is  endow^ed  with 
sufficient  lifting  power  to  support  the  entire  weight  of 
all  the  revolving  parts,  namely  the  wheels,  the  vertical 
shaft,  and  the  revolving  parts  of  the  generator  driven 
by  the  wheel. 

The  mention  of  the  shaft  brings  us  to  the  second 
point  under  investigation — the  best  means  of  bringing 
5000  horse-power  from  the  point  of  development  to 
the  surface.  For  this  purpose  it  was  decided  to 
employ  a  shaft  of  steel  tubes  38  inches  in  diameter, 
contracting  at  intervals  into  a  solid  bar  11  inches  in 
diameter,  to  run  in  journals  for  the  sake  of  steadiness. 

At  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  should  be  placed — 
what  ?  The  answering  of  this  question  demanded  the 
most  careful  investigation.     In  1890  there  were  people 

21 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

to  plead  for  four  different  methods  of  power  trans- 
mission. Some  could  point  to  the  good  work  done 
at  Schaffhausen  and  elsewhere  by  turbines  driving 
manilla  and  wire  ropes ;  others  to  Geneva,  where 
turbines  transmitted  hydraulic  pressure  for  consider- 
able distances  through  pipes.  At  Paris,  again,  the 
compressed-air  system  had  been  largely  developed, 
and  in  America  this  method  had  a  stout  champion  in 
George  Westinghouse,  the  famous  inventor  of  the 
air-brake  for  trains.  The  fourth  method — that  of 
transmission  by  electricity — could,  however,  produce 
the  best  credentials  :  a  particularly  good  proof  of  its 
reliability  being  afforded  at  Domene  in  the  Dauphiny 
Alps.  The  power  for  a  paper-mill  is  there  drawn 
from  a  glacier  in  the  mountain  four  miles  away,  where 
the  power-house  is  inaccessible  for  three  months  of 
the  year.  In  spite  of  sleet  and  snow,  and  storms  and 
intense  cold,  the  conducting  wires  do  their  duty  con- 
tinuously and  well,  with  great  profit  to  the  owner  of 
the  mill  to  which  they  supply  power. 

As  the  Niagara  plant  was  to  be  on  an  unprece- 
dented scale  the  dynamos  were  of  unequalled  capacity, 
able  to  produce  currents  in  large  quantities.  These 
generators  differed  from  the  usual  type  in  one  very 
important  particular,  viz.,  that  the  position  of  the 
stationary  and  moving  parts  was  reversed  at  Niagara. 
It  is  customary  for  the  armature — a  series  of  coils  of 
insulated  wire — to  be  rotated  rapidly  inside  a  circular 
ring,  called  the  field-ring,  to  the  inner  face  of  which 
are  attached  a  number  of  powerful  magnets.     In  the 

22 


The  Harnessing  of  Niagara 

Niagara  installation  the  armature  is  fixed,  and  the 
field-ring  made  to  revolve.  We  may  assume  that  the 
armature  in  question  resembles  a  huge  cake  with  a 
large  hole  cut  through  the  centre.  The  turbine  shaft 
is  extended  to  pass  through  the  cake  and  project  some 
distance  above  it,  ending  in  a  taper  which  fits  tightly 
into  a  hole  in  the  centre  of  a  horizontal  plate  or 
"  driver  "  of  rather  larger  diameter  than  the  armature. 
The  field-ring  is  bolted  tightly  on  to  the  edge  of  the 
driver,  and  the  shaft,  driver  and  ring  have  together  a 
decided  resemblance  to  a  Chinese  umbrella,  the  turbine 
shaft  representing  the  handle,  the  driver  the  top,  the 
ring  the  hanging  sides.  It  is  a  noble  umbrella  indeed, 
the  carrying  of  which  would  need  the  sinews  of  a 
small  Celestial  army.  Its  weight  is  79,000  lbs.,  or 
about  35  English  tons ;  this  includes  the  shaft,  the 
driver,  and  the  ring  with  its  pole-pieces  and  bobbins, 
each  of  which  weighs  more  than  a  ton.  The  whole 
revolves  at  a  rate  of  250  revolutions  a  minute,  giving 
a  fly-wheel  effect  of  1,274,000,000  lbs.  One  advantage 
of  this  arrangement  is  therefore  obvious,  that  the 
need  of  a  special  fly-wheel,  as  originally  designed,  is 
done  away  with  :  another  is  that  the  magnetic  attrac- 
tion between  the  field  magnets  and  the  armature  acts 
against  the  centrifugal  force  tending  to  burst  the  ring, 
and  so  increases  the  "  factor  of  safety  "  of  the  ring. 

This  last  is  worthy  of  a  few  lines  to  itself.  Its 
diameter  is  11  feet  7-J- inches,  its  depth  about  4  feet. 
The  ring  is  forged  in  one  piece  without  weld  from  a 
nickel   steel   ingot,  54  inches  in  diameter  and  more 

23 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

than  i6  feet  long,  through  the  centre  of  which  a  hole 
was  bored  preparatory  to  expansion  on  a  mandrel 
under  a  14,000-ton  hydraulic  press.  The  Bethlehem 
Iron  Company  was  responsible  for  the  forging,  and 
the  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany for  the  trueing  and  turning-up  on  their  mam- 
moth lathes. 

The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company  have  on  the 
American  shore  two  power-houses.  Each  is  designed 
to  accommodate  ten  generators,  giving  a  combined 
output  of  50,000  horse-power.  The  one  is  finished 
and  in  full  working,  the  other  rapidly  approaches 
completion.  Beneath  the  stately  row  of  dynamos, 
which  we  see  on  entering  a  power-house,  yawns  the 
wheel  pit,  463  feet  long,  20  broad,  180  deep — a  huge 
slot  cut  out  of  solid  rock.  If  we  are  permitted  to 
descend  we  find  men  busy  attending  to  the  bearings, 
watching  that  the  oil-supply  keeps  down  their  tem- 
perature to  the  proper  figure.  Near  the  bottom  the 
turbines  hum  on  their  platforms  of  stout  steel  girders 
spanning  the  gulf,  and  fling  vast  quantities  of  water 
into  the  nether  darkness,  whence  it  finds  a  path  through 
a  side  tunnel  into  the  great  main  tunnel  that  occupied 
1000  men  continuously  for  more  than  three  years, 
in  the  removal  of  over  300,000  tons  of  rock,  and  the 
placing  of  16,000,000  bricks  for  lining.  Near  the 
portal  the  grade  falls  very  suddenly,  so  as  to  permit 
the  discharge  of  one-half  of  the  flow  from  the  tunnel 
below  the  surface  of  the  Rapids. 

In  the  power-house,  flanking  the  generators,  stand 
24 


The  Harnessing  of  Niagara 

two  platforms  of  white  enamelled  brick,  each  nearly 
20  yards  long  and  some  13  feet  wide,  surmounted  by 
eight  upright  stands,  on  the  face  of  which  are  many 
indicating  instruments.  These  structures  are  techni- 
cally known  as  the  switchboards,  to  each  of  which  is 
conveyed  the  total  25,000  horse-power  from  a  group 
of  five  generators.  *'  The  switchboards  are  the  main 
nerve-centres  of  the  plant  from  which  its  various 
functions  are  directed  and  controlled.  Upon  them 
are  located  instruments  and  appliances  by  means  of 
which  the  attendant  is  always  informed  as  to  the 
output  and  voltage  of  the  various  generators,  and 
which  indicate  instantly  the  nature  and,  within  certain 
limits,  the  location  of  any  disturbance  in  any  part  of 
the  system.  ...  In  front  of  the  attendant  are  half  a 
hundred  levers  controlling  pneumatically  the  great 
dynamo  and  feeder  switches  and  auxiliary  switches. 
,  .  .  Here,  by  a  crook  of  the  finger,  the  attendant  can 
at  will  cut  off  instantly  the  entire  supply  or  any 
portion  of  it."^ 

In  comparison  with  the  power  handled,  the  number 
of  men  required  to  control  it  is  small.  But  the  well- 
being  of  so  many  thousands  depends  on  the  small 
band  in  the  power-house,  that  it  becomes  an  absolute 
necessity  for  each  man  to  be  specially  trained,  alert, 
resourceful  to  meet  any  emergency  that  may  arise. 
The  working  of  the  generators  goes  on  night  and  day, 
and  the   employes  are  therefore   divided   into  three 

^  Mr.  Philip  B.  Barton,  in  Cassiei^s  Magazine, 
25 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

shifts  of  eight  hours  each.  At  the  head  of  each  shift 
is  the  electrician-in-charge,  whose  particular  duty  is  to 
operate  the  two  main  switchboards,  and  his  post — the 
captain's  bridge  of  the  plant,  as  it  has  happily  been 
called — is  switchboard  Number  One.  An  assistant 
electrician  has  charge  of  switchboard  Number  Two ; 
a  shift  foreman  is  responsible  for  the  operation  of  the 
motive-power  plant,  having  under  him  oilers  to  tend 
the  bearings,  labourers  to  keep  the  inlet  racks  to  the 
penstocks  free  from  eel-grass,  ice  and  drift,  and  the 
man  who  looks  after  the  elevator  in  the  wheel-pit. 
other  officials  are  in  attendance  to  repair  the 
machinery  at  any  point,  whether  hydraulic  or  elec- 
trical, and  attend  to  the  telephone,  through  which 
important  orders  may  come  at  any  moment. 

The  current  manufactured  by  the  generators  may 
be  used  either  locally  or  at  a  distance.  In  the  former 
case  the  pressure,  or  voltage,  is  that  of  the  generators, 
but  for  transmission  to  distant  places  such  as  Tona- 
wanda  or  Buffalo,  20  miles  off,  it  would  be  unprofit- 
able to  use  so  low  a  pressure,  on  account  of  the  loss 
that  results  from  the  resistance  of  the  conducting 
cables.  The  current  is  therefore  *' stepped-up,"  or 
increased  in  intensity,  to  11,000  or  22,000  volts,  just  as 
water  or  gas  is  pumped  at  very  high  pressures  through 
long  pipes.  On  reaching  the  receiving  end  of  the 
transmission  cable  it  is  "  stepped-down,''  or  reduced, 
by  transformers  for  local  uses,  and  converted,  if 
necessary,  from  alternating  to  direct  current. 

Niagara  power  was  first  sent  to  Buffalo  in   1896. 

26 


The  Harnessing  of  Niagara 

The  cables  are  slung  on  stout  poles  35  to  65  feet 
high,  placed  about  60  feet  apart.  Porcelain  insulators 
of  unusual  size  are  employed  to  protect  the  cables 
from  leakage,  and  in  order  to  maintain  an  efficient 
guard  of  the  line,  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company 
has  purchased  a  strip  of  land  30  feet  wide  reaching 
from  the  Falls  to  Buffalo.  The  line  is  patrolled  night 
and  day  by  men  who  are  able  to  communicate  by 
telephone  with  headquarters. 

At  the  Buffalo  Exposition  of  190 1  was  witnessed 
the  most  magnificent  display  of  electric  illumination 
that  ever  gladdened  the  eyes  of  man.  The  central 
point  of  the  display  was  the  electric  tower  surmounted 
by  a  superb  figure  of  the  Goddess  of  Liberty.  Several 
hundred  thousands  of  eight  candle-power  lamps  had 
been  arranged  along  the  angles  and  edges  of  the 
building  and  its  chief  architectural  details.  At  a  given 
signal  the  operator  in  the  electricity  building  started  a 
small  motor,  controlling  a  worm  gear  that  slowly 
poured  into  the  lamps  the  whole  of  the  power  taken 
from  a  generator  at  roaring  Niagara,  20  miles  away. 
The  gradual  change  in  myriads  of  lamps  from  faint 
luminescence  to  full  incandescence  came  as  a  revela- 
tion of  beauty  to  the  thousands  of  spectators  in  the 
grounds  below;  and  soon  after  a  huge  searchlight 
swept  the  horizon,  even  to  the  mighty  cataract  from 
which  it  derived  its  force. 

The  purposes  to  which  Niagara  power  is  already 
turned  are  legion.  The  population  of  the  north-west 
corner  of  New  York  State  has  become  dependent  for 

27 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

many  conveniences  and  comforts  on  the  energy 
issuing  in  vast  quantities  from  the  grey  limestone 
power-houses  flanking  the  sides  of  the  inlet  canal. 
Four  cities,  of  a  combined  population  of  half  a  million, 
are  lit  throughout  by  Niagara  force,  which  also 
operates  their  350  miles  of  street-car  track.  In 
Buffalo,  the  Tonawandas,  Lockport,  and  Niagara 
Falls  fifty  large  manufactories,  representing  a  capital 
of  |ioo,ooo,ooo,  depend  entirely  for  their  success 
upon  a  constant  supply  of  current  from  the  Com- 
pany's generators.  And  so  efficient  is  the  organisation 
of  the  Company's  plant  that  during  a  period  of  nearly 
three  years  total  interruption  of  power  has  occurred 
but  once,  and  then  only  for  eighteen  minutes,  on 
account  of  an  ice-jam  in  the  river.  As  the  plant  is 
increased  the  possibility  of  interruption  will  become 
even  slighter,  since  the  switchboards  are  so  arranged 
that  the  current  from  any  one  group  of  generators  can 
be  switched  in  a  moment  into  any  supply  line.  The 
rapidity  with  which  improvements  in  electrical  appa- 
ratus succeed  one  another  may  be  gauged  from  the 
fact  that,  in  the  second  power-house  on  the  American 
side,  the  five  turbines  last  put  in  will  be  of  a  fixed 
field-ring  type — an  improved  reversion  to  old  practice; 
while  on  the  Canadian  side,  where  tunnel,  wheelpit, 
and  intake  canal  for  a  capacity  of  100,000  horse- 
power are  being  completed^  the  Company  is  establish- 
ing dynamos  producing  the  enormous  figure  of  10,000 
horse-power  each.  This  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
unit  is,  of  course,  the  result  of   proved  economy  in 

28 


BOSTON  COLLEGE  LHoi^AKY 
CHESTNUT  HILL.  MASS. 

The  Harnessing  of  Niagara 

larger  generators,  as  regards  cost  per  horse-power  in 
the  construction  of  the  generator,  and  the  turbine  to 
drive  it,  and  the  space  required  in  wheel-pit  and 
power-house.  It  is  possible  that  in  the  future  we 
shall  see  far  larger  generators  even  than  these  in 
common  use,  for  the  big  thing  of  to-day  becomes  the 
normal  practice  of  to-morrow. 

We  should  at  least  mention,  though  full  details  of  man- 
agement, construction,  &c.,  are  not  at  the  author's  dis- 
posal, an  independent  company — known  as  the  Niagara 
Falls  Hydraulic  Power  and  Manufacturing  Company — 
which  already  develops  and  sells  35,000  horse-power 
to  various  industries.  This  company's  power-house  is 
situated  below  the  Falls.  It  draws  its  supplies  from  a 
canal  that  connects  the  upper  river  with  the  edge  of 
the  bluffs,  whence  three  penstocks,  11  feet  in  diameter, 
conduct  the  water  210  feet  vertically  to  fourteen  tur- 
bine-wheels of  from  2000  to  2500  horse-power  each, 
connected  directly  to  generators  coupled  at  each  end. 
From  these  generators  the  current  is  led  to  the  top  of 
the  bank  by  means  of  wires  and  aluminium  bars  built 
along  the  side  of  the  penstocks,  and  thence  in  under- 
ground subways  to  various  consumers. 

With  power  so  abundant  it  may  well  be  cheap.  In 
how  many  regions  of  the  world  could  you,  for  the  sum 
of  |8  (£1,  I2S.),  obtain  from  year's  end  to  year's  end, 
without  a  break,  energy  representing  one  horse- 
power ?  Having  these  figures  before  us  we  can 
understand  why  the  Pittsburg  Reduction  Company, 
which  controls  the  aluminium   industry  of  America, 

29 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

left  Pittsburg,  where  good  coal  costs  but  68  cents 
(2S.  lod.)  a  ton,  and  migrated  to  Niagara  ;  and  how  it 
comes  about  that  many  manufacturers  can  here  save 
enough  on  power  in  one  year  to  pay  for  building  and 
cost  of  removal. 

The  Company  just  named  produces  pure  aluminium 
— a  metal  distinguished  by  its  lightness,  beauty,  and 
freedom  from  corrosion — from  an  oxide  of  alumina, 
by  smelting  the  latter  in  carbon-lined  retorts  which 
act  as  one  terminal  of  a  heavy  electric  circuit,  massive 
carbon  rods  suspended  above  the  crucibles  forming 
the  other  pole.  The  Carborundum  Company  also 
employs  intense  heat — electric  furnaces  of  to-day  are 
used  at  a  temperature  of  7000  degrees — to  smelt  car- 
borundum from  its  ore  into  crystals,  which  are  ground 
into  powder  and  pressed  into  various  forms  for  grind- 
ing purposes  as  emery,  large  wheels  for  shaping  tools, 
or  tiny  discs  for  smoothing  teeth.  Among  electrolytic 
and  electro-chemical  processes  none  are  of  greater 
interest  than  the  carborundum  processes,  whereby  an 
artificial  abrasive  is  made  in  much  the  same  way  as 
that  which  brought  the  diamond  into  existence. 

Great  factories  are  springing  up  for  the  manufacture 
of  carbide  of  calcium,  and  other  chemicals.  Thomas 
Edison,  the  great  electrician,  has  prophesied  that 
Niagara  will  be  ^^the  great  electro-chemical  centre  of 
the  world."  It  may  already  claim  that  distinction,  so 
powerful  an  ally  is  an  unlimited  supply  of  cheap  power 
to  the  chemist. 

Paper,  silver-plate,  graphite,  lamp,  cloth,  and  steel 
30 


The  Harnessing  of  Niagara 

factories  are  rapidly  rising  within  sound  of  the  Falls. 
Electricity  heats  the  ovens  in  the  huge  establishments 
of  the  Natural  Food  Company.  At  Tonawanda  elec- 
tricity saws  and  planes  vast  stacks  of  timber ;  at 
Lockport  it  whirls  heavy  trains ;  at  Buffalo  it  runs 
the  street  cars,  prints  one  of  the  leading  newspapers, 
handles  thousands  of  tons  of  cereals,  helps  in  the 
creation  of  steel  bridges,  operates  refrigerators,  sup- 
plies the  motive  power  for  great  dockyards,  tanyards, 
breweries,  and  pumps. 

At  Niagara,  as  a  result  of  this  new-born  power,  a 
great  city  is  springing  up  with  mushroom  speed — a 
city  free  from  smoke,  gas,  ashes — an  ideally  clean 
city.  Five  trunk  railways  lead  westwards  from  it, 
five  to  New  York,  five  to  Boston.  On  the  comple- 
tion of  its  docks  Niagara  will  be  the  eastern  terminus 
of  the  Great  Lake  basin,  at  the  greatest  transhipment 
point  of  raw  material  in  America.  All  things  augur 
for  Niagara  a  future  comparable  to  the  present  of 
Chicago. 

It  is  a  matter  for  thankfulness  that  the  great  power 
installations  have  been  so  arranged  as  to  leave  the 
picturesque  beauties  of  the  Falls  unharmed.  Tourists 
will  still  find  the  huge  cataract  a  thing  to  gaze  upon 
with  rapt  admiration,  despite  the  turbines  pulsing 
with  mighty  energy  not  far  away.  The  public-spirited 
action  of  the  Company  is  further  seen  in  the  industrial 
village  of  Echota,  which  they  have  built  for  the  em- 
ployes in  the  factories.  A  few  years  ago  the  eighty- 
four    acres    on    which    it    stands    was    water-logged 

31 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

meadowland,  subject  to  inundation   by  the   streams 
that  run  on  two  sides  of  it  a  few  feet  below  its  level. 
The  Company  therefore  built  a  high  dyke  all  round 
it,  and,  as  it  was  impossible  to  raise  the  area  to  a 
height  at  which  it  would  drain  readily  into  the  river, 
they   instituted   a   system   of    deep    drainage  which, 
traversing  the  city  in  all  directions,  discharges  into 
large    pits   whence    the   water    is    pumped    into   the 
streams.     So  carefully  has  this  been  done  that  rains 
no  longer  make  the  earth  heavy  and  muddy,  nor  does 
the  sun  scorch  it  into  cracked  clay  and  dust.     Lawns 
and   trees   flourish,   and   wet    cellars    are    unknown. 
Broad  roads  intersect  the  property  on  a  systematic 
plan,  passing  between  rows  of  trim  houses  well  pro- 
vided with  modern  comforts— running  water,  electric 
light,  and  a  wholesome  sanitary  system.     The  streets 
are  lit  with  large  clusters  of  lamps  by  night.    Boughs  of 
trees  give  grateful  shadow  by  day.     A  frequent  service 
of  electric  cars  runs  at  all  hours.     And  last,  but  not 
least,  rentals  are  as  low  as  nine  dollars  a  month,  light 
and  water  included.      ^^The  village   of   Echota   has 
been  evolved,"  writes  Mr.  John  Bogart,i  *^in  accord- 
ance with  the  careful  study  of  the  men  to  whom  was 
committed    the   responsibility   of    the    solution   of   a 
complex  problem.     A  district  not  fit  for  comfortable 
residence  has  been  transformed  into  an  ideal  healthful 
village.      Ground  upon  which   no  vegetation  would 
thrive  has  been  changed  to  a  region  of  velvet  lawns 

*  In  Casster's  Magazine, 
32 


The  Harnessing  of  Niagara 

and  blooming  gardens.  Roads  which  were  a  dis- 
comfort from  dust,  or  annoyance  from  mud,  have 
been  made  into  well-paved,  beautiful  streets.  An 
unattractive  expanse  of  poor  meadowland  has  become 
a  model  town." 

We  may  here  say  farewell  to  the  great  Niagara 
Falls,  and  in  conclusion  turn  our  thoughts  for  a 
moment  to  the  Zambesi,  where  the  Victoria  Falls, 
twice  as  broad  as  those  of  Niagara,  have  a  sheer  drop 
of  nearly  400  feet.  To-day,  in  California,  power  is 
successfully  transmitted  for  nearly  150  miles,  and 
with  this  precedent  it  is  to  be  hoped  and  expected 
that  in  the  future  water-power  available  in  unequalled 
volumes  at  '^  the  smoke  that  thunders  "  will  be  utilised 
to  aid  the  development  of  the  great  mineral  resources 
of  Rhodesia  and  South-Central  Africa,  converting 
what  is  now  semi-explored  territory  into  centres  of 
industry. 

Note. — On  the  Canadian  shore  there  are  at  present  in  progress 
two  separate  undertakings  independent  of  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company,  viz.  the  Ontario  Power  Company,  which  is  now 
constructing  a  proposed  initial  development  of  30,000  to  50,000 
horse-power  ;  and  the  Toronto  Niagara  Power  Company,  which 
has  recently  commenced  the  construction  of  a  50,000  horse-power 
plant. 


33 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  TAMING  OF  THE  NILE 

To  no  country  in  the  world  does  the  veil  of  romance 
cling  more  closely  than  to  Egypt,  that  strange,  mys- 
terious land  of  utter  barrenness  one  jostling  prodigal 
fertility ;  in  which  huge  monuments  tell  of  great  by- 
gone races,  and  proclaim  that  here  was  the  cradle  of 
civilisation  and  the  birthplace  of  history. 

To  visit  and  explore  Egypt  is  to  visit  and  explore 
the  Nile,  the  huge  river  that  has  its  beginning  at 
the  equatorial  Nyanzas,  and  flows  northwards  three 
thousand  miles  before  its  majestic  stream  discharges 
itself  into  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean.  Countless 
years  prior  to  the  advent  of  man  the  river  hollowed 
out  its  bed  in  the  plains  and  through  the  rocks  of 
Eastern  Africa,  struggling  with  the  thirsty  Khamsin- 
swept  desert  for  a  narrow  strip  of  verdure  on  which 
mankind  might  dwell.  In  course  of  time  the  Land  of 
the  Nile  teemed  with  a  great  population  that  con- 
quered surrounding  peoples  and  left  records  of  their 
victories,  their  religion,  and  their  kings  in  the  temples 
and  tombs  that  line  each  bank  of  the  river.  Its 
waters  were  the  scene  of  many  a  great  pageant.  In 
the  temples  hard  by  the  Egyptians  did  reverence  to 
the  bounteous  Nile,  the  giver  of  all  good  things  to 

34 


The  Taming  of  the  Nile 

them,  under  the  name  of  Osiris,  the  God  of  Life,  in 
eternal  combat  with  his  murderer  Typhon,  the  demon 
of  the  desert  and  personification  of  Evil  itself. 

From  the  uncertainties  of  history  that  begins  with 
the  very  beginnings  of  history  the  Nile  flows  out, 
the  life-blood  of  countless  generations  that  have  been 
and  of  many  more  to  come.  It  does  to-day  what  it 
did  in  the  days  of  Rameses  and  Cheops,  of  Cambyses, 
Alexander,  Julius  Caesar,  and  Napoleon.  The  great 
conquerors  who  have  floated  on  its  bosom  are  turned 
to  dust,  but  still  every  year  is  seen  the  wonder  of  the 
flood  rising  in  summer  heat  under  a  cloudless  sky 
overflowing  its  banks  till  the  adjacent  villages  are  but 
as  islands  in  a  watery  waste,  covering  the  land  with 
its  fertilising  silt,  and  then  gradually  sinking  into  its 
bed  again.  The  year  is  divided  for  the  Egyptian  into 
three  seasons :  Summer,  when  the  Nile  dwindles  to 
its  lowest  level ;  Flood-time,  during  which  the  melt- 
ing snows  of  Abyssinia  and  the  incessant  tropical 
rains  of  the  Nyanza  basin,  thousands  of  miles  away, 
roll  in  increasing  volume  down  the  valley,  laden  with 
the  rich  red  silt  of  the  Atbara  ;  and  Winter,  when 
green  crops  come  up  as  if  by  magic  on  the  sinking 
of  the  flood,  and  the  corn  crops  are  sown  for  the 
harvest  in  March. 

The  anxiety  with  which  the  rising  of  the  Nile  is 
watched  may  be  appreciated  by  those  who  have  ex-' 
perienced  a  season  of  drought  in  climes  usually 
blessed  with  an  abundant  rainfall.  They,  however,' 
keep  their  eyes  fixed  on  the  heavens  for  the  clouds 

35 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

that  are  long  delayed,  or  roll  over  without  shedding 
the  dew  of  heaven  ;  the  Egyptian  looks  at  his  feet, 
watching  the  rise  of  the  waters.  The  Nilometer  is 
the  arbiter  of  his  fortunes.  The  ordinary  rise  at 
Cairo  is  about  24  feet,  less  is  insufficient,  more  brings 
danger.  A  rise  of  18  or  20  feet  spells  famine  ;  a  flood 
of  30  feet  means  ruin. 

The  silt,  deposited  at  the  rate  of  some  5  inches 
a  century,  is  of  an  extraordinary  productiveness. 
''Wherever  the  soil  is  fairly  cultivated  and  properly 
watered,  it  amply  repays  the  toil  of  the  husbandman, 
yielding  luxuriant  crops  of  tobacco,  cotton,  sugar- 
cane, and  indigo.  Among  the  shallows  of  Lake 
Menzaleh  lingers  the  once-prized  papyrus.  In  the 
beautiful  valley  of  Faioum  myriads  of  roses  burden 
the  air  with  fragrance  ;  and  every  peasant's  tiny  nook 
of  ground  affords  a  supply  of  leeks,  garlic,  melons, 
and  cucumbers." 

Acres  of  sunny  corn-fields  are  contiguous  to  the 
eternal  barrenness  of  the  desert.  It  has  been  truly 
said  that  if  the  soil  of  Egypt  be  but  tickled  with  a 
hoe  it  will  laugh  with  a  harvest ;  a  quality  that  has 
made  it,  like  India,  the  scene  of  much  contention  for 
its  possession. 

During  a  great  part  of  the  year  the  Egyptian  is 
like  a  man  ushered  into  a  treasure-house  from  which 
he  may  carry  only  what  his  hands  can  hold.  The 
Nile  flows  past  his  home  in  vast  volume,  amply  suffi- 
cient for  the  needs  of  the  whole  country  were  it  but 
available  in  a  constant  supply  and  in  all  spots  of  the 

36 


The  Taming  of  the  Nile 

long,  narrow  valley  that  is  the  true  Egypt.  For  cen- 
turies, at  low  Nile,  the  farmer  has  been  obliged  to 
ladle  water  painfully  to  upper  levels  by  means  of  the 
primitive  '^shadoof,"  or  pole-bucket,  and  discharge 
it  into  the  myriad  canals  and  ditches  that  intersect 
his  property.  The  English  farmer  is  happy  in  being 
able  to  exclude  from  the  list  of  his  burdens  that  of 
lifting  water  on  to  his  land  at  the  cost  of  some  fifty 
shillings  an  acre.  "It  will  be  seen,"  says  Sir  Benjamin 
Baker,  "  what  a  vast  amount  of  human  labour  is  saved 
throughout  the  world  by  the  providential  circum- 
stance that  in  ordinary  cases  water  tumbles  down 
from  the  clouds  and  has  not,  as  in  Egypt,  to  be 
dragged  up  from  channels  and  wells." 

Now,  though  the  Egyptian  is  probably  doomed  to 
expend  a  great  portion  of  the  sweat  of  his  brow  on 
this  task  of  watering,  Western  science  has  come  to 
the  aid  of  the  "  unchanging  East."  The  same  neces- 
sity that  drove  the  ancient  Pharaohs  to  the  construc- 
tion of  canals  and  reservoirs  has,  during  the  last  half 
century,  exercised  the  thoughts  of  those  responsible 
for  the  welfare  of  Egypt.  The  scheme  has  been 
gradually  evolved  of  putting  a  bridle  upon  the  Nile, 
to  check  its  course  somewhat  during  flood-time  and 
rescue  some  of  its  surplus  water  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean against  the  season  of  greatest  need.  To  a 
Frenchman,  Meugel  Bey,  belongs  the  honour  of 
having  first  spanned  the  stream,  below  Cairo,  with  a 
barrage.  This  work  consists  of  two  brick  arched 
viaducts  crossing  the  Rosetta  and  Damietta  branches 

37 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

of  the  Nile,  containing  132  arches  of  16  feet  14  inches 
span,  which  are  closed  during  the  summer  by  iron 
sluices,  so  as  to  retain  on  the  upper  side  a  head  of 
15  extra  feet  of  water,  to  be  thrown  into  the  main 
irrigation  canals  below  Cairo.  The  building  of  the 
barrage  occupied  fifteen  years,  and  another  twenty 
passed  before  it  could  be  considered  in  satisfactory 
working  order.  The  chief  difficulty  of  construction 
arose  from  the  unstable  nature  of  the  matter  below 
the  foundations,  through  which  the  water  forced  its  . 
way,  despite  the  timber  pilings  driven  deep  down  into 
the  river-bed.  At  a  later  date  Major  Brown,  Inspector- 
General  of  Irrigation  in  Lower  Egypt,  found  it 
expedient  to  relieve  the  pressure  on  the  old  barrage 
by  constructing  auxiliary  weirs  below  it,  and  so  raise 
the  water  level  on  the  lower  side.  He  effected  this 
by  dropping  cement  rubble  from  rafts  into  a  movable 
timber  caisson,  thus  forming  solid  and  contiguous 
masonry  blocks  from  bank  to  bank. 

The  effect  of  Meugel  Bey's  great  work,  hampered 
by  the  whims  of  Egyptian  officials,  and  costly  in  spite 
of  forced  labour,  has  been  immensely  beneficial  to 
Lower  Egypt.  This  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  fact 
that  in  1900  it  saved  the  cotton  crop  in  the  Delta 
from  utter  disaster,  and,  according  to  Lord  Cromer's 
calculations,  has  doubled  the  cotton  crop  of  Egypt, 
an  annual  gain  of  ;£5,ooo,ooo.  To  give  the  reader  an 
idea  of  the  water-retaining  capacity  of  the  barrage,  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  it  feeds  six  canals,  the  largest 
of  which,  the  central  canal,  at  the  apex  of  the  Delta, 

38 


The  Taming  of  the  Nile 

carried,  even  in  the  drought  of  June  1900,  a  volume 
one-fourth  greater  than  that  of  the  Thames  in  mean 
flood ;  and  the  Ismailieh  Canal,  running  to  the  Suez 
Canal,  was  still  a  river  twice  as  large  as  the  Thames 
at  the  same  season. 

The  steamer,  or  picturesque  dahabeah,  after  passing 
through  the  huge  barrage  locks  on  its  way  upstream, 
encounters  no  obstruction  for  250  miles,  when  it 
reaches  Assiout,  the  thriving  capital  of  Upper  Egypt, 
lying  in  a  fertile  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  Libyan  Moun- 
tains. Here  is  the  second  step  in  the  staircase  of  the 
Nile  water-scheme,  the  recently  erected  barrage, 
rather  more  than  half  a  mile  long,  and  pierced  with 
III  arched  openings  16  feet  4  inches  wide,  all  of 
which  can  be  closed  by  steel  sluice-gates.  The 
barrage  measures  about  50  feet  from  front  to  rear  at 
the  base,  and  47  at  the  top,  along  which  runs  a  road- 
way from  shore  to  shore.  The  whole  rests  upon  a 
platform  of  concrete  and  masonry  87  feet  wide  and 
10  feet  deep,  which  is  protected  from  the  undermining 
influence  of  the  water  by  tongued  and  grooved  iron 
sheets  driven  down  23  feet  into  the  river-bed, 
made  tight  at  their  joints  with  cement.  As  a  further 
precaution  a  strip  of  the  bed  both  up  and  down 
stream  is  covered  for  a  width  of  67  feet  with  stone 
pitching,  resting  on  clay  puddle  and  layers  of  fine 
gravel  and  pebbles  respectively.  So  that,  supposing 
a  small  quantity  of  water  to  have  penetrated  the 
clay  on  its  upper  side,  and  worked  its  way  right  under 
the  two  fences  of  iron  sheets,  its  upward   course  is 

39 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

severely  checked,  if  not  annihilated,  by  the  sand 
reinforced  by  pebbles  in  turn  held  down  by  stone 
blocks. 

Work  was  commenced  at  Assiout  on  December  i, 
1898,  in  the  formation  of  ^'sadds,"  or  dams,  surround- 
ing the  site  of  the  foundations  on  the  western  side. 
By  February  in  the  following  year  everything  was 
ready  for  pumping  the  water  out  of  the  sadds.  An 
area  of  13  acres  being  laid  dry,  men  were  crowded  on 
to  drive  piles,  lay  the  cement  and  rubble  foundations, 
and  build  the  masonry  on  them.  The  next  year 
further  sadds  were  made  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
fresh  foundations  laid,  and  the  first  section  continued. 
In  1900,  which  witnessed  nearly  one  half  of  the  entire 
work,  the  sadds  met  in  mid-stream,  and  navigation 
was  diverted  to  a  gap  purposely  left  near  the  east 
bank.  The  following  figures  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
scale  of  operations  during  this  3^ear  :  in  May  and 
June  the  average  number  of  men  at  work  was  13,000, 
nearly  a  million  and  a  half  sandbags  were  placed  in 
position,  more  than  100,000  superficial  feet  of  iron 
piling  driven,  over  90,000  cubic  yards  of  masonry  and 
foundations  laid,  nearly  half  a  million  cubic  yards 
excavated  and  filled.  To  keep  the  water  down  in  the 
sadds  17  pumps,  each  throwing  a  solid  column  of 
12  inches,  were  constantly  employed,  in  addition  to 
many  auxiliary  pumps. 

The  barrage  was  completed  in  the  spring  of  1902. 

will,   it   is   estimated,  bring   under   cultivation  an 

additional   300,000   acres,  supplying   their   needs   by 

40 


The  Taming  of  the  Nile 

means  of  the  great  Ibrahimiyah  Canal,  which  receives 
water  just  above  the  barrage ;  and  will  render  more 
effective  the  work  of  the  Cairo  barrage. 

Three  hundred  and  fifty  miles  above  Assiout  the 
Nile  is  once  more  spanned  at  Aswan  by  the  huge  dam 
which  will  for  centuries  be  monumental  evidence  of 
the  enterprise  of  English  rulers  and  of  the  skill  of 
English  engineers. 

Aswan,  or  Assouan,  signifies  ^'the  opening."  Its 
ancient  name  was  Syene ;  and  as  such  it  had  fame  as 
the  dep6t  of  merchandise  passing  from  north  to  south, 
as  a  strategic  position  at  the  gates  of  Nubia,  and  as 
having  in  its  neighbourhood  famous  quarries,  whence 
came  many  of  the  colossal  structures  of  old  Egypt. 
The  first  of  the  seven  so-called  cataracts — they  are 
really  no  more  than  rapids — of  the  Nile,  until  recently 
shot  between  the  rocky  islands  which  here  unite  with 
the  towering  cliffs  that  press  in  towards  the  river  on 
either  side.  The  cataract  fell  in  three  stairs,  of  which 
the  uppermost  was  the  most  formidable ;  and  boats 
going  upstream  had  to  be  towed  through  rushing 
waters  by  gangs  of  half-naked  Arabs.  A  writer  has 
thus  described  the  scene :  "  The  Nile,  bending 
abruptly,  broadens  into  a  kind  of  bay,  which  is  shut 
in  by  the  green  and  lovely  island  of  Elephantine, 
whence  an  early  dynasty  of  Egyptian  kings  derived 
their  name.  The  high,  bold  rocks  which  rise  on 
every  hand  seem  like  the  boundaries  of  a  lake.  On 
the  left,  nestling  under  crags,  whose  summit  is 
crowned  with  ruins,  lies  the  modern  village ;   in  the 

41 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

distance  the  yellow  sandy  hills  are  covered  with  the 
remains  of  Saracenic  architecture.  To  the  right  the 
shattered  walls  of  a  convent  mark  the  crest  of  a  sand- 
stone eminence ;  and  all  around  between  the  desert 
and  the  river,  the  palm  groves  cluster  in  verdurous 
masses.  .  .  .  The  view  from  the  environing  rocks  is 
very  striking,  a  view  of  hill  and  water,  wood  and 
lowland ;  and  beyond,  the  confused  and  blown 
heaps  of  the  rolling  sands  of  the  desert.  The  river 
hurries  past  in  a  succession  of  rapid  eddies  and  foam- 
ing whirls.  In  their  midst  lie  various  black-coloured 
islets,  marking  the  boundary  of  the  cataract."  ^ 

Above  the  cataract  is  the  island  of  Philae,  the  Mecca 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  who  there  worshipped  at 
the  shrines  of  Osiris,  I  sis,  and  Horus,  the  sacred  triad 
of  their  mythology.  In  the  bed  of  the  cataract,  so 
the  story  ran,  lay  the  body  of  the  murdered  Osiris,  to 
rise  every  year  in  the  form  of  the  life-giving  flood  ;  so 
what  spot  more  fit  than  Philae  in  which  to  raise 
magnificent  temples  to  him,  his  sister- wife,  and  son? 
Huge  ruins  still  crown  the  island,  colossal  propylons, 
shadowy  arcades  covered  with  hieroglyphics  ;  gigantic 
columns,  obelisks,  and  statues,  forming  so  wonderful 
a  testimony  to  Egyptian  art  that  modern  travellers 
visit  it  with  an  eagerness  akin  to  that  of  the  old-time 
worshippers. 

For  the  last  five  years  the  iron-bound  precipices 
that  form  a  stern    setting  to  the  lovely  island  have 

»  W.  H.  Davenport  Adams  in  "The  Land  of  the  Nile." 
42 


The  Taming  of  the  Nile 

looked  down  upon  a  mighty  struggle  between  Man 
and  Nature.  For  in  the  heart  of  the  cataract,  where 
the  waters  rush  at  a  speed  of  fifteen  miles  an  hour, 
has  been  raised  a  huge  dam  from  hills  to  hills,  offer- 
ing a  broad  breast  of  enormous  strength  to  the  hurry- 
ing Nile.  Surely  imagination  kindles  at  the  thought 
of  men,  so  small  and  weakly,  bridling  a  prince  among 
the  rivers  of  the  world,  despite  the  silent,  unceasing 
hostility  of  the  watery  element  ! 

To  begin  the  story  of  the  Nile  Dam  aright  we  must 
go  back  to  the  day  when  Sir  Samuel  Baker  first  sug- 
gested that  here,  at  the  ''Gate"  through  which  the 
fertilising  flood  rushes  with  maximum  force,  should 
a  gate  of  masonry  be  placed.  He  conceived  the  idea 
of  a  series  of  dams  to  form  reservoirs  from  Kartoum 
downwards.  *'  The  great  work  might  be  commenced 
by  a  single  dam  above  the  first  cataract  at  Aswan,  at 
a  spot  where  the  river  is  walled  in  by  granite  hills. 
By  raising  the  level  of  the  Nile  60  feet  obstructions 
might  be  buried  in  the  depths  of  the  river,  and  sluice- 
gates and  canals  would  conduct  the  shipping  up  and 
down  stream." 

After  forty  years  Sir  Samuel's  proposal  has  been 
carried  out  almost  to  the  letter.  Mr.  Willcocks, 
formerly  Director-General  of  Reservoirs  in  Egypt, 
worked  at  the  idea  of  constructing  such  a  dam  for 
years,  and  after  surveying  all  likely  points  in  the 
valley,  came  to  the  same  conclusion  as  the  great 
explorer,  that  Aswan  was  the  most  suitable  spot.  An 
international  Committee,  consisting  of  Sir  Benjamin 

43 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Baker — already  famous  for  his  work  on  the  Forth 
Bridge — Signor  Giacomo  Torricelli,  and  M.  Auguste 
Boule,  to  whom  the  matter  was  referred,  also  arrived 
at  the  same  opinion.  Mr.  Willcocks  accordingly  drew 
up  plans  for  a  dam,  or  rather  series  of  curved  dams, 
capable  of  holding  back  3700  million  cubic  metres  of 
water.  The  project  unfortunately  involved  the  sub- 
mersion and  destruction  of  the  ruins  on  Philae,  and 
on  that  ground  was  so  vigorously  opposed,  that  fresh 
designs  were  made,  and  a  single  straight  dam  sub- 
stituted of  such  a  height  as  to  retain  1065  million 
cubic  metres — or  less  than  one-third  of  the  original 
estimate. 

The  dam  is  of  a  most  impressive  size.  From  end 
to  end  it  measures  a  mile  and  a  quarter.  Its  maximum 
height  from  lowest  foundation  to  parapet  is  over  120 
feet.  On  the  upstream  side  it  is  perpendicular,  on 
the  downstream  side  it  thickens  downwards  from  the 
summit,  where  it  has  a  width  of  rather  more  than  16 
feet,  with  a  regular  batter  of  i  in  ij,  which  in  its 
deepest  parts  gives  it  a  foundation  breadth  of  100 
feet.  The  total  weight  of  masonry  is  over  1,000,000 
tons.  No  less  than  180  openings  pierce  it  from  face 
to  face.  Of  these  140  are  23  feet  high  by  6  feet  6 
inches  broad,  and  the  remaining  40  are  12  feet  high 
and  of  equal  width.  These  openings  are  closed  at 
their  upstream  ends  by  steel  sluice-gates,  working 
mostly  on  the  Stoney  roller  principle,  which  enables 
them  to  be  opened  by  hand  even  when  subjected  to 
a  pressure  of  450  tons.     When  open  they  will  pass 

44 


The  Taming  of  the  Nile 

the  entire  volume  of  the  Nile  m  full  flood  at  the  rate 
of  15,000  tons  per  second.  The  water  levels  on  the 
dam  faces  differ  at  the  beginning  of  summer  by  67 
feet;  and  this  head  of  water  forms  a  lake  150  miles 
long,  that  would  reach  from  London  to  Nottingham 
and  still  leave  enough  over  for  Thirlmere. 

Sir  Benjamin  Baker,  the  consulting  engineer  to  the 
Dam  Construction  Committee,  said  in  a  paper  read 
at  the  Royal  Institution,  that  the  quantity  of  water 
stored  in  this  artificial  reservoir  may  be  made  to 
appear  enormous  or  trifling  according  to  the  stan- 
dard to  which  it  is  compared.  Thus,  on  the  one 
hand,  when  we  consider  that  the  rainfall  within  the 
four-mile  cab  radius  from  Charing  Cross  amounts 
to  100  million  tons  annually,  we  become  aware  of 
the  insignificance  of  the  reservoir  as  a  substitute  for 
a  rainfall  such  as  ours  over  the  whole  land  of  Egypt. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  when  calculation  shows  that 
the  reservoir  holds  enough  water  for  a  full  domestic 
supply  to  every  one  of  the  42  million  inhabitants  of 
the  British  Islands,  then  the  vastness  of  the  quantity 
becomes  appreciable.  And  it  increases  our  respect 
for  the  Nile  to  learn  that  in  flood-time  a  volume  of 
water  equal  to  the  total  contents  of  the  reservoir 
passes  through  the  sluices  every  twenty-four  hours. 

As  soon  as  the  initial  difEculties  regarding  finance 
had  been  overcome  by  the  timely  aid  of  Sir  Edward 
Cassel,  tenders  were  invited  for  the  construction  of 
the  dam.  Sir  John  Aird  &  Co.  were  the  successful 
competitors ;    and    in    February  they  signed   a  con- 

45 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

tract,  including  Messrs.  Ransomes  &  Rapier  as  sub- 
contractors for  the  steelwork,  to  complete  the  dam 
by  July  1903.  The  foundation  stone  was  laid  by 
H.R.H.  the  Duke  of  Connaught  on  February  12,  1899, 
and  the  dam  formally  opened  by  His  Royal  Highness 
on  December  10,  1902,  or  eight  months  in  advance  of 
contract  time.  The  merit  of  this  feat  is  enhanced 
by  the  unexpected  difficulties  that  the  constructors 
were  called  upon  to  cope  with  from  time  to  time. 

Even  the  expected  difficulties  were  formidable 
enough.  "  It  would  not  be  too  much  to  say/'  writes 
Sir  Benjamin  Baker,  **that  any  practical  man  stand- 
ing on  the  verge  of  one  of  the  cataract  channels, 
hearing  and  seeing  the  apparently  irresistible  tor- 
rents of  foaming  water  thundering  down,  would 
regard  the  putting  in  of  foundations  to  a  depth  of 
40  feet  below  the  bed  of  the  cataract  in  the  short 
season  available  each  year  as  an  appalling  under- 
taking." But  everything  had  been  carefully  thought 
out,  and  in  a  short  time  after  the  signing  of  the 
contract,  a  large  tract  of  the  desert  adjoining  the 
desert  was  taken  possession  of,  and  on  it  rose  rail- 
ways, houses,  offices,  machine-shops,  stores,  and 
hospitals.  Soon  thousands  of  natives  and  European 
workmen  transformed  the  solitude  into  a  busy  town. 

The  islands  across  which  the  dam  runs  were  sub- 
merged at  flood-time,  but  in  summer  only  a  few 
channels  passed  the  water.  These,  naming  them 
in  order  from  east  to  west,  are  :  the  Bab-el- Kebir, 
the  Bab-el-Harum,  the  Bab-el-Saghaiyar,  the  Central 

46 


The  Taming  of  the  Nile 

Channel,  and  the  West  Channel — the  last  two  the 
widest.  Through  them  the  water  rushed  at  a  pace 
exceeding  the  fastest  progress  of  a  University  crew 
The  question  arose  how  to  block  these  channels  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  site  of  the  foundations  could 
be  pumped  dry.  Recourse  must  be  had — as  at  Assi- 
out — to  "sadds,"  but  under  very  different  conditions. 
It  was  therefore  determined  to  build  stone  sadds  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  channels  from  island  to  island, 
before  high  Nile,  and,  when  comparatively  still  water 
had  thus  been  secured  above  them,  to  form  sand-bag 
sadds  at  the  entrances ;  so  that  when  the  flood  had 
subsided  pumping  operations  might  be  at  once  begun. 
The  Kebir,  Harum,  and  Saghaiyar  channels  were 
attacked  first.  Huge  stones,  weighing  up  to  four 
tons,  were  lowered  into  the  current  by  cranes  ;  but 
such  was  the  momentum  of  the  water  that  even  they 
were  carried  away.  It  was  therefore  found  necessary 
to  enclose  several  blocks  at  a  time  in  large  nets  of 
steel  wire ;  and  on  occasions  when  this  method 
proved  ineffective  the  engineers  adopted  even  more 
heroic  measures,  and  shot  into  the  stream  railway 
trucks  laden  with  granite  blocks  lashed  tightly  to- 
gether by  wire  ropes.  These  masses,  weighing  up- 
wards of  50  tons,  acted  as  a  '*  toe,"  or  lodgment,  for 
smaller  bodies,  and  at  last  patience  was  rewarded  by 
the  appearance  of  the  temporary  dams  above  the 
surface.  Cement  and  sand  were  then  tipped  in  on 
the  upstream  side  to  work  in  among  the  stones  and 
fill  all  interstices.      The  completed  stone  sadds  were 

47 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

22  feet  wide  on  top,  thickening  rapidly  downwards  to 
a  maximum  depth  of  50  feet. 

Full  Nile  put  them  severely  to  the  test ;  for  after 
its  subsidence  steel  rails  were  found  strangely  twisted, 
and  the  surface  of  the  stones  was  like  that  of  polished 
marble.  As  soon  as  the  summits  were  exposed  by 
the  sinking  flood,  huge  numbers  of  sandbags  were 
thrown  into  the  entrances  of  the  channels,  forming 
dams  16  feet  wide  at  top  and  55  deep.  Since  the 
flood  of  1899  was  unusually  low,  the  temporary  dams 
were  carried  across  the  ends  of  the  Central  Channel 
as  well,  and  completed  in  February  1900. 

Pumping  then  commenced.  Many  large  12-inch 
centrifugal  pumps  got  to  work  and,  as  Sir  Benjamin 
Baker  admits,  the  engineers  watched  the  result  with 
great  anxiety,  as  no  one  could  predict  whether  it 
would  be  possible  thus  to  dry  the  river-bed.  For- 
tunately for  the  progress  of  the  dam,  the  sadds  stood 
the  test  remarkably  well.  In  one  day  the  Bab-el- 
Kebir  was  emptied  of  all  but  a  small  leakage 
easily  nullified  by  a  single  pump;  the  Bab -el - 
Harum,  the  Bab  -  el  -  Saghaiyar,  and  the  Central 
Channel  being  equally  amenable.  By  March  1900 
the  contractors  were  hard  at  work  on  the  excavation 
of  the  drained  surfaces,  cutting  down  until  hard,  firm 
rock  was  reached.  Great  trouble  resulted  from  the 
fact  that  in  three  channels  an  unexpected  depth  of 
schistous  formation  had  to  be  removed.  The  Bab-el- 
Kebir  especially  furnished  a  great  quantity  of  extra 
work,  inasmuch  as  the  rock  had  to  be  excavated  to 

48 


The  Taming  of  the  Nile 

a  point  38  feet  below  the  level  of  the  contract  draw- 
ings, and  the  "  batter  "  of  the  walls  being  maintained 
of  necessity,  the  foundation  breadth  at  this  place  was 
ICO  feet  instead  of  about  70. 

This  delay,  as  serious  as  it  was  unexpected,  aroused 
the  contractors  to  tremendous  efforts  to  make  up  for 
lost  time,  and  raise  the  masonry  to  a  sufficient  height 
before  the  following  flood-time.  In  June  work  was 
carried  on  day  and  night,  brilliant  arc  lights  replacing 
the  sun  at  sunset. 

A  contributor  to  the  Daily  Mail  has  graphically 
described  the  scene  : 

"Orders  are  given  for  all  workers  to  assemble  at 
6.30  for  7  A.M.  duty.  At  seven  the  engineer  takes  his 
coffee  and  roll,  lights  a  cigarette,  and  is  swiftly  driven 
to  his  work  by  fleet  runners  from  his  own  door,  and 
landed  practically  in  the  centre  of  activity. 

"  Arrived  on  the  barrage,  or  dam,  a  knot  of  '^sheikhs" 
and  "  reis  "  greet  him  with  the  courtly  Eastern  salaam, 
and  shortly  after  may  be  seen  speeding  towards  the 
various  quarters  of  the  works.  Maybe  1000  men  are 
at  work,  each  section  under  its  particular  chief,  the 
fellaheen  from  near  Cairo,  famous  stone-dressers  and 
masons  for  centuries  back — so  far  back  that  the  vista 
of  ages  grows  dim ;  these  are  attended  by  boys  in 
picturesque  "  galabeahs,"  carrying  water,  and  very 
often  by  women  gracefully  bearing  boxes  of  "hom- 
rah,"  or  mortar,  on  their  heads.  Bedouin  and 
fellaheen  work  like  ants  at  the  rough  work,  and 
dark-skinned,   smiling,   good-natured    Sudanese    ram 

49  D 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

the  concrete  as  it  is  placed  in  position,  as  if  they 
took  the  whole  thing  as  a  huge  joke. 

**As  the  work  proceeds  one  presently  hears  the 
Arabs  and  Sudanese  (once,  and  not  long  ago,  masters 
and  slaves,  as  the  remains  of  the  Cairo  slave-market, 
now  in  ruins,  testify)  chanting  some  of  their  melan- 
choly and  weird  dirges,  throwing  great  heaps  of 
undressed  stone  from  one  place  to  another,  which, 
as  one  looks,  becomes  spread  out  into  the  evenness 
of  a  revetment  wall,  or,  neatly  dressed,  becomes  the 
facing  of  the  dam.  Here  and  there,  under  broad 
sun-helmets,  like  tall  mushrooms,  may  be  found  a 
wily  Greek  or  excitable  Italian,  acting  as  a  useful 
Ueutenant  to,  and  directing  the  work  being  executed 
by,  the  solitary  Englishman  perched  yonder  on  an 
elevation  of  masonry,  apparently  an  idle  spectator, 
and  yet  seeing  all,  and  occasionally  acting  as  judge 
in  the  many  disputes  arising  between  the  different 
factions. 

*^  Ceaselessly  the  work  goes  forward,  drowned  by 
the  equally  ceaseless  chant,  till  twelve  noon,  when  up 
goes  the  Egyptian  flag  to  the  top  of  the  flag-pole,  and 
work  ceases  until  one  P.M.  Away  fly  the  Europeans 
on  trolleys,  the  "  reis  "  and  *'  sheiks  "  on  donkeys,  to 
their  homes  for  dinner,  and  the  long-wished  for 
'Mrink"  poor  Steevens  so  well  described.  The  trol- 
leys, propelled  by  gaily-clad  runners,  shouting  "Oh, 
ah,  riglak"  ("Mind  your  feet  1 ")  at  the  top  of  their 
lungs,  till  one  wonders  where  the  breath  is  coming 
from  for  the  next  call :  a  company  of  red  and  white 

50 


The  Taming  of  the  Nile 

turbans  move  off  to  one  spot,  another  of  close-fitting 
brown  skull-caps,  representing  the  fellaheen,  tear  off, 
scampering  like  children,  to  another  locality,  and 
the  rear  of  this  motley  crowd  is  generally  brought 
up  by  the  more  dignified  company  of  inky-black 
Sudanese,  who  at  once  seek  the  encampment  where 
their  wives  are  (without  whom  they  never  travel  any 
distance). 

'*Amid  ceaseless  chattering  and  gesticulating  a 
hearty  meal  is  made — off  what,  ye  British  workmen  ? 
Simply  a  few  cucumbers  or  turnip-tops,  two  or 
three  lettuces,  perhaps ;  and  this,  with  a  bowl  of 
lentils,  and  the  puffed-out  flat  cakes  of  the  East, 
washed  down  with  muddy  Nile  water,  constitutes 
for  them  an  excellent  meal.  Possibly,  if  in  season, 
a  piece  of  sugar-cane  fulfils  the  same  object.  This 
lordly  repast  being  over,  the  chattering  ceases,  the 
burnooses  are  brought  out  from  a  pile,  spread  over 
their  bodies,  face  and  all,  and  they  sleep  till  two  o'clock. 

^^  By  2.5  P.M.  all  hands  have  fallen  to  again,  to  work 
without  break  till  5.30  P.M.,  with  the  blazing  sun  over- 
head blistering  all  that  it  touches.  Still  the  ceaseless 
*  chip-chip'  of  the  mason,  the  thud  of  the  rammers, 
the  clank  of  the  divers'  air-pumps,  the  monotonous 
sing-song,  and  the  shriek  of  diminutive  railway 
engines,  till  the  magic  hour  of  5.30,  when  up  goes 
such  a  shout  from  the  throats  of  1000  men  as  might 
raise  their  departed  ancestors  for  generations  back, 
and  the  shrill  Mu  lu '  of  the  women,  and  the  Egyptian 
crescent  once  more  floats  in  the  cool  evening  breeze. 

51 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Hundreds  of  devout  worshippers  drop  about  in  all 
directions,  having  spread  their  prayer-mats,  turn  their 
faces  to  Mecca,  and  give  their  fervent  thanks  to  Allah, 
swinging  backwards  and  forwards  like  the  stalks  of  a 
cornfield. 

"Then  takes  place  one  of  the  most  interesting 
functions  of  the  day.  On  a  strip  of  sand  left  dry  by 
Father  Nile,  three  or  four  circles  of  crouching  figures 
are  formed,  with  a  *  reis '  in  the  centre  of  each,  and 
every  fifth  man  sitting  forward  receives  the  pay  of  the 
five  from  a  large  bag  of  coin,  and  distributes  it  directly 
after  ;  meanwhile  the  scribe,  generally  a  Copt,  stand- 
ing at  the  elbow  of  the  paymaster,  ticks  off  the  payees' 
names.  As  each  circle  is  paid  off  it  dissolves  into 
a  crowd  of  happy  children  making  for  the  bazaar, 
there  to  indulge  in  the  nightly  fantasia  and  the  ever- 
lusting  tap  of  the  tom-toms.  .  .  . 

*^At  the  hoisting  of  the  flag  at  5.30  P.M.  a  solitary 
figure  is  rowed  away  down  the  old  river,  the  head- 
piece and  mover  of  this  vast  machinery  of  humanity, 
and  if  one  could  look  through  the  lattice  window  of 
his  room  two  hours  after,  one  would  see  a  picturesque 
group  of  gaily-dressed  Arab  sheikhs  and  reis  standing 
round  that  one  man  of  a  foreign  race  making  reports 
and  receiving  them  till  midnight  strikes,  when  this 
representative  of  the  Dominant  Power  encloses  him- 
self within  his  mosquito  curtains  with  a  *  Kullu  khalass 
el  naborda  kullu  leyleh,'  and  the  height  of  the  dam 
has  risen  two  feet  within  the  last  twenty-four  hours." 

By  the  end  of  1900,  the  most  momentous  year  in 

52 


The  Taming  of  the  Nile 

the  history  of  the  dam,  the  back  of  the  work  had  been 
broken.  The  amount  of  excavation  then  amounted 
to  577,515  cubic  metres,  and  the  masonry  to  239,468, 
or  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole.  In  the  following 
year  the  west  channel  was  closed,  and  foundations 
were  laid  up  to  the  western  shore,  where  they  met  the 
northern  end  of  the  great  navigation  lock,  which  is  in 
itself  a  large  piece  of  engineering. 

The  lock  contains  four  steps  controlled  by  five 
huge  gates  32  feet  wide  and  60  feet  high.  Instead  of 
being  placed  in  pairs,  meeting  at  an  angle  in  the 
middle — as  in  river  locks  of  the  usual  type — these 
gates  are  hung  from  the  top  on  rollers,  and  slide 
sideways  like  a  coach-house  door  into  recesses  in  the 
flank  of  the  lock.  This  arrangement  was  adopted 
for  safety's  sake  ;  the  two  uppermost  gates  being 
made  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  the  whole  head 
of  67  feet  of  water  if  suddenly  called  upon  to  do  so. 

At  highest  flood  the  ruins  on  the  Island  of  Philae 
are  partially  submerged,  and  a  general  saturation  of 
the  silt  and  mud,  of  which  the  island  is  composed, 
takes  place.  Measures  were  therefore  taken,  under 
the  superintendence  of  Dr.  Ball  and  Mr.  Mat  Talbot, 
to  protect  the  monuments  from  the  risk  of  settlement, 
by  underpinning  the  most  important  parts  down  to 
solid  rock,  or  at  least  to  a  point  below  the  saturation 
level.  So  that  we  may  hope  that  for  many  years  to 
come  modern  engineering,  as  represented  by  the 
colossal  dam,  may  not  be  blamed  as  the  destroyer 
of  ancient  art. 

53 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

When  the  river  is  rising  the  sluices  will  all  be  opened 
to  permit  the  free  passage  of  the  silt-laden  water. 
After  the  flood,  when  the  discharge  of  the  Nile  has 
diminished  to  2000  tons  a  second,  the  sluices  will 
gradually  be  closed,  and  the  Nile  slowly  mount  the 
upper  side  of  the  dam.  In  May,  June,  and  July  the 
water  will  be  doled  out  to  the  farmers.  Huge  though 
the  storage  is  it  is  not  abundant,  and  in  order  that 
those  enjoying  it  may  be  fairly  treated,  the  Government 
of  Egypt  has  bound  down  the  population  to  a  long 
list  of  most  elaborate  regulations,  which  forbid  even 
the  drawing  of  water  in  buckets  except  at  the 
appointed  time. 

Already  schemes  are  under  discussion  for  additional 
dams  further  up  the  Nile  to  extend  the  benefits  con- 
ferred by  the  works  here  described.  The  revenue 
and  prosperity  of  Egypt  are  so  closely  bound  up  with 
the  question  of  water,  that  with  men  of  the  stamp 
of  Lord  Cromer  and  Sir  William  Garstin  at  the  head 
of  affairs,  we  may  look  at  no  distant  date  for  new 
developments  possibly  approaching  in  importance  the 
construction  of  the  Great  Nile  Dam  itself. 


54 


CHAPTER  III 

DAMS   AND   AQUEDUCTS 

Probably  few  of  us  whose  houses  are  connected 
with  a  public  water-supply  give  much  thought,  as 
we  watch  the  crystal-clear  liquid  issuing  from  a  tap, 
to  the  journey  that  it  has  taken  from  the  point  where 
man  first  gathered  it  for  his  own.  Yet,  perhaps,  it 
has  come  many  a  mile  through  pipes  and  tunnels, 
been  flung  into  reservoirs,  strained,  filtered,  passed 
again  into  pipes,  first  for  the  town,  then  for  the  street, 
lastly  for  the  house,  until,  still  fresh  from  its  moun- 
tain stream  or  subterranean  cave,  it  emerges  into  the 
unromantic  surroundings  of  the  bathroom  or  back- 
kitchen. 

Our  direct  experience  of  the  mechanical  side  of  a 
water-supply  is  usually  confined  to  the  operations 
so  often  seen  in  the  minor  veins  that  multiply  towards 
its  urban  extremity.  We  know  only  too  well  the 
doings  of  the  plumber,  and  of  the  labourer  who 
converts  the  smooth  surface  of  our  roads  into  a 
dangerous  succession  of  hills  and  valleys.  The  con- 
sequent bills  and  rates  are  apt  to  blind  us  to  the  real 
romance  and  magnitude  of  the  work  needful  to  give 
us  our  daily  water.  We  must  trace  the  system  back- 
wards from  our  doors,  through  mains  of  increasing 

55 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

size,  to  the  very  heart  and  arteries,  before  we  realise 
how  nobly  the  brain  of  engineer  and  muscle  of 
artisan  have  been  employed,  in  the  cause  of  health 
and  sanitation,  on  undertakings  about  which  but 
a  few  of  those  who  are  directly  benefited  possess 
more  than  a  shadowy  knowledge  or  proper  appre- 
ciation. 

Those  wonderful  old  builders,  the  Romans,  have 
shown  us,  by  the  stately  march  of  their  aqueducts 
across  plain  and  valley,  that  the  question  of  a  good 
water-supply  for  large  towns  pressed  even  in  their 
days.  Since  then  the  problem  has  become  in- 
creasingly difficult  in  thickly-populated  countries, 
on  account  of  the  artificial  contamination  of  streams 
and  strata  by  the  processes  of  manufacture.  And 
while,  on  the  one  hand,  we  see  the  engineer  driven 
further  afield  for  his  source  of  supply,  on  the  other 
we  notice  that  the  demand  for  an  ever  greater  con- 
sumption per  head  is  pushed  vigorously  by  common- 
sense  and  scientific  consideration. 

The  daily  supply  of  London  has  reached  the 
enormous  total  of  200  miUion  gallons,  drawn  from 
the  New  River,  the  Thames,  and  subterranean  sources. 
During  the  last  few  years  the  Metropolis  has  experi- 
enced the  inconveniences  and  dangers  of  a  water- 
famine,  which  have  turned  mens'  eyes  to  schemes 
discussed  in  1866,  of  tapping  the  waters  of  the  Welsh 
valleys,  collecting  it  in  huge  reservoirs,  and  bringing 
it  across  country  by  pipe-lines  180  miles  long,  at  a 
cost  of  ;£i 2,000,000 ;  or  of  pressing  into  the  service 

56 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

the  Westmoreland  lakes,  with  their  available  storage 
of  some  36,000  million  gallons,  and  connecting  them 
with  London  by  270  miles  of  pipes,  at  an  outlay  of 
13J  million  pounds. 

For  their  boldness  these  schemes  may  compare 
with  that  of  the  Parisians  to  fetch  supplies  from  the 
Swiss  lakes,  across  300  miles  of  France.  At  present, 
none  of  these  projects  have  come  to  anything  ;  and 
the  first  two  have  let  slip  an  opportunity,  since 
Manchester  now  draws  from  Thirlmere,  and  Liver- 
pool and  Birmingham  from  the  Welsh  area  earmarked 
for  London. 

In  the  following  pages  it  is  proposed  to  describe  at 
short  length  the  construction  of  the  huge  pipe-lines 
that  help  to  supply  our  three  largest  provincial 
towns. 

We  will  first  turn  our  eyes  to  Thirlmere  in  West- 
moreland, a  picturesque  httle  lake  of  a  natural  area  of 
328^  acres.  Previous  to  1894,  the  great  cotton  city 
drew  its  water  from  Longdendale,  a  valley  situated 
about  eighteen  miles  east,  through  which  flows  the  river 
Etherow,  one  of  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Mersey. 
The  reservoirs,  of  a  storage  capacity  of  some  6000 
million  gallons,  collect  the  water  of  19,000  acres,  and 
deliver  about  25  million  gallons  a  day  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Manchester.  The  rate  of  consumption  increased 
so  rapidly  between  1856  and  1875  that  the  Corpora- 
tion foresaw  a  shortage  unless  a  further  area  were 
laid  under  contribution  ;  and  after  an  examination  of 
various  sources,  it  adopted  a  scheme  for  impounding 

57 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Thirlmere,  and  leading  its  waters  96  miles  to  the  great 
reservoirs  at  Prestwich. 

An  Act  of  Parliament  authorising  the  scheme  was 
obtained  in  May  1879 ;  and  six  years  later  the  glens 
of  Westmoreland  began  to  resound  to  the  snort  of 
engines  and  clink  of  hammers.  A  huge  retaining 
wall  gradually  rose  across  the  north  end  of  the  lake, 
where  it  found  an  outlet  into  the  St.  John's  Beck. 
The  dam  is  divided  into  two  portions  by  a  small 
rocky  eminence,  through  which  surplus  and  compen- 
sation water  is  discharged  by  means  of  a  tunnel  12 
feet  wide  and  9  feet  high.  This  tunnel  is  closed'by 
a  transverse  masonry  wall,  pierced  with  two  36-inch, 
and  one  18-inch  pipes,  controlled  by  valves  actuated 
by  hydraulic  and  hand-power. 

The  dam  is  driven  down  throughout  its  length  to 
solid  rock,  reaching  a  maximum  depth  of  50  feet 
below  the  river-bed  ;  at  which  point,  as  it  rises  50  feet 
above  the  lake,  it  has  a  height  of  100  feet. 

The  increase  of  depth  in  the  lake  thus  artificially 
produced  gives  a  total  storage  capacity  of  8,130,686,693 
gallons ;  but  for  present  purposes  only  20  feet  of 
extra  depth  is  necessary  for  the  supply  of  Manchester. 
As  occasion  dictates  the  level  of  the  overflow  will  be 
raised,  and  a  larger  body  of  water  impounded. 

The  most  interesting  part  of  the  scheme  is  the 
Aqueduct,  which  brings  the  limpid  stream  from  under 
the  lofty  crest  of  Helvellyn  to  a  point  four  miles  out- 
side Manchester. 

The  Romans,  to  whom  iron  piping  was  unknown, 

58 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

led  their  aqueducts  across  valleys  on  tiers  of  arches, 
built  at  the  cost  of  much  labour.  The  modern  en- 
gineer is  able  to  adopt  the  simpler  method  of  gravity- 
flow.  By  means  of  syphons  he  takes  the  v^rater  down 
one  side  of  a  valley  and  up  the  further  slope  to  a 
point  where  it  finds  its  own  level,  and  continues  its 
onward  course  in  a  gentle  fall  towards  its  destination. 
These  long  pipe  lines  are  not  hermetically  sealed  from 
end  to  end  like  the  service  pipes  of  a  town,  for  in  the 
case  of  a  large  total  drop  between  the  source  and 
point  of  final  delivery  there  would  be  an  excessive 
pressure  in  the  syphons  at  the  valley  bottoms,  the 
pressure  increasing  in  proportion  to  the  difference  in 
height  above  sea-level  between  the  inflow  and  the 
lowest  portion  of  the  pipe  syphon.  The  engineer, 
therefore,  after  determining  the  "  hydraulic  gradient," 
or  rate  of  fall, — in  the  Thirlmere  aqueduct  20  inches 
per  mile — maps  out  the  course  of  the  pipe  line  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  ensure  a  certain  amount  of  fall 
between  the  ends  of  the  syphons,  and  by  placing  the 
upper  end  of  each  important  syphon  on  the  hydraulic 
gradient,  makes  it  hydrostatically  independent  of  the 
rest  of  the  pipe  line  as  regards  pressure.  The  greatest 
pressure  in  the  Thirlmere  aqueduct  occurs  at  the 
bridge  over  the  river  Lune,  where  the  lowest  pipes  of 
the  syphon  have  to  support  a  hydrostatic  stress  of 
410  feet,  equivalent  to  180  lbs.  to  every  square  inch, 
and  therefore  are  if  inches  thick. 

Another  important  consideration  is  the  tendency  of 
any  fluid  or  gaseous  body  enclosed  in  a  pipe  under 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

pressure  to  straighten  out  that  pipe.  This  effect  may 
be  noticed  in  the  flexible  tube  connecting  an  air- 
pump  with  a  pneumatic  tyre.  At  each  stroke  the  tube 
gives  a  '*  kick,"  unless  it  be  carefully  laid  in  a  straight 
line.  The  sharper  the  curves,  the  greater  is  their 
resistance  to  the  flow  of  air,  and  the  more  pronounced 
is  the  resultant  kick. 

It  therefore  becomes  very  necessary  for  the  engineer 
to  lead  his  pipes  in  as  gentle  curves  as  possible,  both 
vertically  and  horizontally,  and  at  unavoidably  sharp 
bends  to  anchor  them  securely  to  a  stable  foundation. 
At  the  bridge  over  the  Lune,  the  straightening  pull  is 
equivalent  to  a  pressure  of  54  tons,  which  is  coun- 
teracted by  steel  straps  passed  over  the  pipes  and 
attached  to  stout  anchorages. 

On  the  steep  descents  on  the  sides  of  valleys  any 
slipping  of  the  pipes  is  prevented  by  projecting  rings 
which  engage  with  a  surrounding  bed  of  concrete. 

The  Thirlmere  aqueduct  is  made  up  of  three  classes 
of  construction  :  tunnel,  14  miles ;  "  cut  and  cover," 
37  miles ;  pipe  lines,  45  miles.  The  tunnels,  which 
were  bored  out  by  pneumatic  drills,  are  7  feet  wide 
and  7  feet  i  inch  high,  and  lined  where  necessary. 
The  cut-and-cover  lengths  have  a  transverse  section 
of  the  same  dimensions,  and  a  lining  of  concrete  18 
inches  thick.  Manholes  and  ventilators  are  placed 
every  quarter  of  a  mile.  Both  tunnels  and  cut-and- 
cover  lengths  will  accommodate  the  ultimate  maximum 
flow  of  fifty  million  gallons,  but  in  the  metal  lengths 
the  channel  is  divided  into  five  parallel   pipe   lines, 

60 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

each  40  inches  in  diameter,  and  capable  of  passing 
10,000,000  gallons  daily  ;  with  the  exception  of  all 
pipes  within  nine  miles  of  Thirlmere,  where  the  five- 
fold line  is  replaced  by  a  three-fold  of  48-inch  pipes. 
In  the  first  instance  only  one  line  was  laid  ;  and  the 
others  will  be  added  as  need  arises. 

The  aqueduct,  after  leaving  the  lake  at  the  southern 
end,  plunges  into  Dunmail  tunnel,  5165  yards  long. 
Then  through  a  succession  of  small  tunnels  to  that  of 
Nab  Scar,  1418  yards  long.  After  traversing  Skeghill 
(1243  yards)  and  Moor  Rowe  (3040  yards)  tunnels,  it 
is  mostly  in  pipe  and  cut-and-cover — the  latter  a 
trench  dug  to  the  gradient  level,  floored  and  walled 
and  roofed  with  concrete,  and  covered  in  again. 
Before  reaching  Manchester  thirty  depressions  have 
to  be  negotiated  by  syphons  of  varying  depths.  As 
it  is  at  these  points  that  the  greatest  danger  from 
bursts  occurs  we  may  notice  the  precautions  adopted 
— which  precautions  apply  in  part  to  the  Liverpool 
and  Birmingham  Aqueducts. 

The  most  likely  point  for  a  burst  is  naturally  at  the 
lowest  portion  of  a  syphon,  where  the  pressure  is 
greatest.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  only  a  very  few  bursts 
have  ever  occurred.  But  the  possible  damage  result- 
ing from  a  large  body  of  water  let  loose  suddenly  on 
a  country  side  is  so  great  that  the  engineers  have 
taken  elaborate  measures  to  reduce  such  effects  to  a 
minimum. 

At  the  north  or  upper  end  of  each  of  the  Thirlmere 
line  syphons  is  a  well  divided  into  two  main  com- 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

partments  by  a  wall.  The  south  compartment  is  sub- 
divided into  three  or  five  divisions,  according  to  the 
number  of  pipes  supplied,  and  each  of  these  divisions 
is  connected  with  the  north  compartment  by  a  pipe, 
the  open  ends  of  which  are  flush  with  the  floors.  In 
the  north  compartment  are  a  number  of  large  bell- 
shaped  vessels,  56  inches  in  diameter,  each  of  which 
is  suspended,  small  end  downwards,  from  a  lever  18 
feet  long,  having  at  one  end  a  fulcrum  and  at  the 
other  a  float,  supported  by  the  water  of  one  of  the 
southern  divisions.  In  case  of  a  burst  in  any  one  of 
the  syphon  pipes  the  water  in  its  particular  southern 
division  at  once  sinks  rapidly,  causing  the  fall  of  the 
float ;  and  the  motion,  transmitted  by  the  lever  to 
the  bell-barrel,  lowers  the  latter  into  the  mouth  of 
the  corresponding  pipe,  and  so  cuts  off  supplies  from 
the  burst  syphon.  The  rise  in  the  northern  compart- 
ment is  neutralised  by  a  number  of  overflow  orifices, 
which  conduct  the  surplus  water  into  a  specially  pre- 
pared channel  until  such  time  as  the  supply  is  lessened 
at  the  Thirlmere  end. 

The  water  in  the  syphon  has  still  to  be  reckoned 
with ;  and  as  two  of  the  syphons  are  over  nine  miles 
long  the  body  of  included  water  is  very  great.  In  the 
northern  leg  of  each  syphon  is  therefore  stationed 
a  valve — or  a  succession  of  valves  at  intervals  — 
released  automatically  by  an  abnormal  rate  of  flow. 
Briefly  described,  the  valve  consists  of  a  metal  disc, 
connected  in  its  central  line  with  two  trunnions  pro- 
truding through  the  walls  of  the  pipe.     At  the  outer 

62 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

ends  of  the  trunnion  are  pulleys,  actuated  by  chains, 
to  the  extremities  of  which  heavy  weights  are  at- 
tached. One  of  the  chains,  after  passing  round  its 
pulley,  is  linked  to  the  end  of  a  piston-rod  connected 
with  a  piston  working  in  a  cylinder  full  of  glycerine 
and  water.  Above  the  pipe  is  an  air-chamber,  bolted 
down  to  a  circular  orifice,  so  that  there  is  an  air- 
tight joint  between  the  chamber  and  the  pipe. 
Athwart  the  chamber  and  through  its  walls  runs  a 
shaft,  from  the  centre  of  which  depends  into  the 
water-way  a  lever,  carrying  at  its  lower  end  a  metal 
plate  21 J  inches  in  diameter.  At  one  end  of  the 
shaft — outside  the  chamber — is  an  arm  so  weighted 
that  the  pressure  of  water  on  the  plate  is  just  counter- 
balanced, and  the  latter  maintained  in  a  horizontal 
position.  When  a  burst  occurs  the  plate  is  pushed 
in  the  direction  of  the  flow,  moves  over  the  lever 
to  which  it  is  attached,  and  communicates  the  motion 
to  the  shaft,  which  releases  a  second  lever  that  in 
turn  releases  the  trunnion  chain-wheels  and  permits 
the  weights  to  rotate  the  wheels,  and  gradually  bring 
the  internal  valve-disc  from  a  horizontal  to  a  vertical 
position,  completely  closing  the  water-way.  The 
reader  has  probably  noticed  the  noise  of  a  ^^water- 
hammer"  resulting  from  the  sudden  closing  of  a 
tap  somewhere  on  the  house  supply.  The  running 
water,  abruptly  checked,  expends  its  impetus  on  the 
walls  of  the  pipe  with  a  sharp  rap  that  may  be  heard 
for  a  considerable  distance.  The  effect  of  such  a 
water-hammer  on    the  great    pipe    lines  would    be 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

disastrous ;  and  it  is  to  ensure  the  very  gradual 
cutting  off  of  the  water  that  the  cyUnder  mentioned 
above  is  employed.  At  the  moment  when  the  chain- 
wheels  are  released  a  small  cock  in  a  pipe  leading 
from  the  cylinder  is  also  opened,  and  the  contents 
slowly  escape,  permitting  the  weight  attached  to  the 
chain  to  pull  round  the  pulley  at  a  uniform  speed. 

The  danger  of  a  "water-hammer"  on  the  southern 
or  lower  leg  of  a  syphon  is  not  so  great,  as  the  direc- 
tion of  the  rush  is  the  opposite  of  that  of  the  normal 
flow.  So  that  for  an  appreciable  time  after  the  burst 
the  water  is  almost  in  a  state  of  rest,  from  which  it 
gradually  attains  a  reverse  motion.  To  check  its 
downward  flow  check- valves  are  placed — three  flaps, 
one  above  another,  opening  only  in  the  direction  of 
normal  flow.  On  a  burst  occurring,  they  at  once 
shut  against  their  seats,  and  remain  there  until  the 
syphon  is  refilled  and  the  flow  resumed. 

The  charging  of  a  syphon  is  not  so  easy  a  matter 
as  might  be  imagined.  The  sudden  influx  of  a  full 
column  of  water  might  imprison  air  in  the  lower 
parts,  compress  it,  and  cause  it  to  burst  suddenly 
up  the  lower  leg,  leaving  room  for  a  violent  rush  of 
water  in  its  track. 

An  ingenious  provision  for  the  charging  has  there- 
fore been  made.  In  each  of  the  large  plugs  in  the 
syphon  wells  is  a  smaller  central  one,  which  is  opened 
by  means  of  a  lever  of  U  section,  supported  at  a 
short  distance  from  one  end  on  a  fulcrum  which 
rests  on  the  main  lever  between  plug  and  float.     A 

64 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

heavy  iron  ball,  weighing  90  lbs.,  runs  in  the  channel 
of  the  short  lever.  When  the  central  valve  is  opened 
the  southern  end  of  the  lever  is  depressed,  and  the 
ball  remains  there  until  the  syphon  is  full,  when 
the  float  rises,  and  by  raising  the  main  and  small 
levers  causes  the  ball  to  roll  along  its  channel  and 
close  the  central  valve.  The  large  plug  is  now  water- 
tight and  ready  for  the  next  emergency. 

The  pipes  used  in  such  works  are  manufactured 
with  the  greatest  care,  being  cast  vertically,  socket 
downwards,  so  that  the  densest  metal  may  be  at  the 
spot  where  there  is  greatest  danger  of  fracture.  Each 
pipe  is  then  tested  internally  with  coal-tar  oil  to  an 
internal  pressure  of  45  lbs.  per  square  inch  in  excess 
of  the  possible  maximum  exerted  by  the  water, 
weighed,  and  its  date,  number,  diameter,  length,  and 
thickness  entered  in  a  book ;  after  which  it  is  heated 
in  a  stove  and  dipped  in  a  special  anti-corrosive  com- 
position. During  the  laying  of  the  line  the  position 
of  every  pipe  is  registered,  together  with  the  name 
of  the  man  who  laid  it,  and  the  date  at  which  it  is 
laid.  The  joints  are  made  by  running  in  molten 
lead  between  the  socket  of  one  pipe  and  the  spigot 
end  of  its  neighbour — a  process  that  is  too  familiar 
in  most  towns  to  need  description. 

The  first  contract  for  the  work  was  let  in  1885, 
and  on  October  13,  1894,  the  first  Thirlmere  water 
arrived  in  Manchester,  the  inhabitants  of  which  town 
are  now  assured  of  a  splendid  supply  for  many  years 
to  come. 

65  E 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

From  Cumberland  we  turn  our  attention  to  the 
equally  hilly  district  of  North  Central  Wales,  where 
are  the  head  waters  of  the  Vyrnwy,  a  tributary  of 
the  Severn.  The  valley  through  which  the  river  flows 
was  once  the  course  of  a  glacier,  that  scraped  deep 
channels  in  the  rock  and  piled  boulders  and  stones 
across  the  glen  so  as  to  create  a  natural  dam,  behind 
which  a  lake  was  formed.  After  many  years  this 
lake  was  filled  in  with  alluvial  deposit,  which  rose 
to  a  height  of  40  to  50  feet  above  the  rocky  barrier. 

Who  would  have  thought,  fifty  years  ago,  that  this 
natural  dam  would  prove  of  the  greatest  utility  to 
far-off  Liverpool,  situated  on  the  edge  of  unlimited 
water  and  yet  casting  anxious  eyes  towards  regions 
where  there  was  water  fit  to  drink  ?  In  an  interesting 
report  on  the  Liverpool  water  supply  the  Corporation 
engineer,  Mr.  J.  Parry,  tells  us  how  in  1865  a  scarcity 
of  water  during  the  summer  and  autumn  produced 
disastrous  results.  ''The  consumption  was  restricted 
in  every  way ;  trade  was  impeded,  sanitary  require- 
ments were  neglected,  public  baths  and  wash-houses 
were  closed,  and  the  death-rate  from  diseases  caused 
and  aggravated  by  a  deficiency  of  water  became  ab- 
normally high.  The  Medical  Officer  of  Health  for 
the  Borough,  the  late  Dr.  Trench,  in  evidence  before 
a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  stated  that 
hundreds  of  lives  would  have  been  saved  during  that 
season  if  there  had  been  an  increased  supply  of 
water." 

As  a  result,  great  works  were  commenced  in  1868  at 

66 


fcs 


^       ^ 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

Rivington,  in  the  Yarrow  valley,  where  there  are  now 
eight  reservoirs  of  598  acres  surface  and  a  capacity 
of  over  4000  million  gallons,  connected  with  Liverpool 
by  a  pipe  line  15!  miles  long,  terminating  at  the 
Prescot  Reservoirs.  These  works  cost  the  Corporation 
i|  million  pounds. 

But  they  did  not  suffice  ;  and  in  1878  Mr.  G.  F. 
Deacon,  M.I.C.E.,  was  instructed  to  survey  the 
Vyrnwy  valley  and  prepare  Parliamentary  plans,  in 
conjunction  with  Mr.  Thomas  Hawksley,  for  the 
creation  of  a  second  supply. 

The  necessary  Act  received  the  royal  assent  in  1880. 

As  no  lake  existed  from  which  to  draw,  the  engineers 
decided  to  create  one  by  closing  the  valley  with  a 
dam  superimposed  on  the  rocky  ledge  left  by  glacial 
action.  The  dam,  which  rises  85  feet  above  the  river- 
bed, is  1 172  feet  long,  161  feet  high  (maximum), 
127  feet  thick  at  the  base  (maximum),  and  contains 
260,000  cubic  yards  of  masonry,  weighing  510,000  tons. 
"  Below  the  sill  of  the  dam  and  above  the  outlet  to 
the  aqueduct,  Lake  Vyrnwy  contains  12,131  million 
gallons.  Its  area  is  1121  acres.  In  a  single  foot  of 
depth  immediately  below  the  overflow,  the  lake  con- 
tains about  304  million  gallons  ;  5  feet  lower  a  foot 
of  depth  contains  292  million  gallons.  .  .  .  The  aver- 
age cross-section  of  this  remarkable  sheet  of  water 
does  not  differ  widely  from  a  horizontal  base  2000 
feet  wide,  with  a  depth  of  water  over  it  of  70  feet, 
and  end  slopes  2^  to  i."  ^ 

1  Mr.  G.  F.  Deacon.  Minutes  of  Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers. 

67 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

This  lake  covers  the  site  of  the  village  of  Llanwddn, 
with  its  forty  cottages,  church,  school,  and  three 
chapels.  By  way  of  compensation,  a  new  village, 
church  and  churchyard  were  built  below  the  dam, 
and  thither  were  removed  the  living  and  the  dead. 

The  living  have  gained  rather  than  lost  by  the 
move ;  new  and  better  houses  to  live  in,  a  well- 
regulated  river,  no  longer  subject  to  sudden  spates, 
flowing  past  their  doors,  a  fine  carriage-way  across 
the  valley  over  the  dam,  and  finally  the  dam  itself,  a 
noble  and  imposing  structure  on  which  the  eye  may 
rest  with  admiration,  especially  at  times  when  the 
water  passing  over  the  top  in  an  unbroken  sheet 
700  feet  wide,  thunders  down  on  to  the  masonry 
below. 

Except  for  the  stone  and  sand  all  the  materials 
used  in  the  Vyrnwy  dam — such  as  cement,  bricks, 
timber,  iron,  machinery,  plant,  coal,  &c. — had  to  be 
carted  over  ten  miles  of  hilly  country  from  the  nearest 
Cambrian  railway  station  of  Llanfyllin. 

The  masonry  throughout  was  executed  with  the 
most  scrupulous  care,  since  the  sudden  breaking  loose 
of  such  a  body  of  water  as  Lake  Vyrnwy  into  the 
valley  of  the  Severn,  with  its  large  towns,  would  be 
terrible  to  contemplate. 

A  great  trench  was  first  dug  across  the  valley  down 
to  hard,  sound  rock.  Boulders  ranging  up  to  hun- 
dreds of  tons  in  weight  were  met  with  and  removed  ; 
all  long  slopes  in  the  sound  rock  were  cut  into  steps; 
and  the  whole  surface  was  scrupulously  cleaned  with 

68 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

wire  brushes  and  high-pressure  water  jets,  and  coated 
with  Portland  cement  mortar.  The  interior  rubble- 
work  of  the  dam  consisted  mainly  of  large  stones 
2  to  lo  tons  in  weight,  laid  by  cranes  on  to  carefully 
levelled  beds  of  cement  mortar.  As  each  stone  was 
placed,  a  number  of  men  beat  upon  its  centre  with 
wooden  mallets  until  it  had  settled  down  well,  and 
squeezed  up  some  of  the  mortar  between  it  and  the 
next  stones.  The  interstices  were  very  carefully  filled 
and  rammed  with  different-sized  tools — blunt-ended 
swords  for  the  narrowest  cracks — and  the  precaution 
taken  of  only  half-filling  the  vertical  spaces  between 
the  last  layer  of  masonry  at  the  end  of  each  day's 
work.  During  the  nights,  Sundays  and  holidays, 
these  half-filled  cracks  were  crammed  tight  with  bags 
to  exclude  rain,  frost,  and  sunshine.  By  this  means 
the  perfect  junction  of  the  work  was  assured. 

The  facing  stones — cut  to  rectangular  form — were 
bedded  in  like  manner,  but  the  mortar  not  brought 
to  the  outer  edge.  Cracks  6  inches  deep  from  the 
face  at  the  bottom,  and  3  inches  at  the  top  were 
left  and  filled  in  with  iron  plates  until  the  mortar 
had  set.  The  cracks  were  then  caulked  to  within  an 
inch  of  the  face  with  special  cement,  very  carefully 
rammed.  The  result  is  a  face  that  will  suffer  a 
minimum  of  disturbance  from  the  contractions  and 
expansions  of  cold  and  heat. 

The  dam  is  pierced  by  two  culverts  carrying  pipes 
for  the  discharge  of  the  daily  10  million  gallons  and 
the  monthly  160  million  gallons  of  compensation  water, 

69 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

This  discharge  has  entailed  an  expenditure  of 
;^30o,ooo,  and  except  in  the  Vyrnwy  stream  itself — 
where  its  importance  is  small — its  effect  is  trifling, 
and  a  concession  rather  to  official  pressure  than  to 
public  needs. 

About  three  quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  south-east 
end  of  the  lake  there  rises  from  the  water  an  orna- 
mental tower  connected  with  the  public  road — con- 
structed by  the  Corporation  at  considerable  expense 
along  the  north-east  side  of  the  lake — by  four  masonry 
arches.  This  tower  is  170  feet  high,  and  stands  out 
60  feet  above  top-water  level. 

On  the  outside  of  the  tower  are  two  inlet  valves, 
each  made  up  of  six  9-foot  tubes  superimposed  verti- 
cally on  one  another,  end  to  end.  By  means  of 
internal  guides  and  a  system  of  catches,  it  is  possible 
to  separate  any  number  of  these  pipes  from  the  pipes 
below,  so  as  to  permit  the  inflow  of  the  water  at  any 
one  of  six  different  levels.  The  lowest  joint  is  con- 
nected by  a  U-shaped  bend  with  a  similar  series  of 
tubes,  working  on  the  same  principle,  in  the  interior 
of  the  tower.  This  enables  the  man  in  charge  to  draw 
water  from  the  surface,  where  it  is  purest,  and  intro- 
duce it  into  the  tower  in  a  state  of  approximate 
quiescence.  The  floor  of  the  interior  is  pierced  by 
three  vertical  bell -mouths  communicating  with  as 
many  46-inch  pipes  leading  to  the  aqueduct,  each 
of  which  can  be  closed  by  a  throttle-valve.  Over  the 
bell-mouths  are  cylindrical  strainers,  9  feet  in  diameter 
and  25  feet  high,  of  very  fine  copper  gauze.     As  soon 

70 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

as  a  strainer  shows  signs  of  fouling  it  is  raised  by 
hydraulic  pressure,  and  cleansed  by  a  washing  turbine 
that  removes  all  clogging  matter  from  the  gauze  in 
a  few  minutes. 

A  concrete  culvert,  730  yards  long,  leads  the  strained 
water  to  a  tunnel  piercing  the  hill  at  the  south-east 
side  of  the  lake.  This  tunnel,  7  feet  in  diameter  and 
2j  miles  long,  terminates  in  an  open  well,  in  which 
the  inlets  to  the  three  pipe  lines  are  fixed.  Each  line 
is,  or  will  be,  of  such  capacity  as  to  pass  14,000,000 
gallons  daily. 

The  total  length  of  the  aqueduct,  in  which  there  is 
very  little  tunnelling,  is  67  miles.  It  falls  into  seven 
main  portions,  each  of  which  terminates  towards 
Manchester  in  a  "balancing  reservoir"  on  the 
hydraulic  gradient.  At  Norton,  where  the  natural 
level  is  no  feet  below  the  gradient  line,  a  fine  red 
sandstone  tower  of  that  height  was  built,  carrying  in 
the  top  an  enormous  bowl  80  feet  in  diameter  and  31 
feet  deep  at  the  centre.  The  bowl  is  supported,  at  the 
circumference  only,  by  steel  rollers,  which  allow  for 
expansive  movements.  Its  capacity  of  650,000  gallons 
renders  it  the  largest  bowl  in  the  world. 

At  the  river  Weaver  the  aqueduct  sinks  into  a 
channel  dredged  for  it  in  the  river-bed,  and  is  held 
down  by  flanges  engaging  with  stout  piles. 

Between  Norton  and  the  Prescot  Reservoirs  the 
engineers  had  their  hardest  work  to  do.  For,  in 
addition  to  crossing  four  railways,  the  aqueduct 
encounters  four  canals  and  the  river  Mersey.     The 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Manchester  Ship  Canal  length  was  carried  out  during 
the  construction  of  the  canal  by  cut-and-cover  work, 
a  culvert  305  feet  long  being  built  with  terminal  shafts 
at  each  end  of  ample  section  for  three  lines  of  36-inch 
steel  pipes. 

Scarcely  has  the  aqueduct  risen  on  the  north  side 
of  the  canal  when  it  descends  again  for  a  long  plunge 
under  the  Mersey.  "  In  point  of  difficulty,  this  work 
proved  to  be  the  most  important  upon  the  whole 
aqueduct.  It  was  the  first  tunnel  ever  constructed  by 
means  of  a  shield  under  a  tidal  or  other  river  through 
entirely  loose  materials.  A  romantic  and  instructive 
account  might  well  be  written  of  the  battles  with  the 
elements,  of  the  repeated  failures  and  successes,  and 
of  the  hairbreadth  escapes,  with  ultimate  pronounced 
success,  which  attended  this  subterranean  and  sub- 
aqueous work."  ^ 

The  tunnel  was  only  900  feet  long  and  but  9  feet  in 
internal  diameter,  yet  its  construction  occupied  forty- 
seven  months,  baffled  two  contractors,  and  had  to  be 
completed  by  the  Corporation  engineer,  Mr.  G.  F. 
Deacon. 

The  Company  had  contemplated  laying  the  pipes  in 
the  Mersey  bed  in  the  same  way  as  had  been  done  at 
the  Weaver,  but  the  Parhamentary  Committee  ordered 
a  tunnel  under  the  river.  Owing  to  the  loose  and 
porous  nature  of  the  Mersey  bed  the  engineers  at  first 
proposed  a  tunnel  that  should  be  104  feet  below  the 

^  Mr.  G.  F.  Deacon.     Proceedings  of  Imt.  C.E, 

72 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

surface  on  the  Cheshire,  and  174  feet  below  on  the 
Lancashire  side.  But  the  estimated  cost  was  so  heavy 
that  they  decided  to  drive  a  horizontal  tunnel  50  feet 
below  high-water  mark.  The  first  contractors  in 
twenty  months  had  sunk  the  shafts  and  driven  the 
tunnel  for  57  feet.  They  then  ceased  work.  The 
second  contractors  drove  and  lined  182  feet  from  the 
Lancashire  shaft,  and  then  also  relinquished  the  task. 
The  great  obstacle  was  the  difficulty  in  keeping  water 
off  the  working  face.  In  sinking  a  vertical  shaft 
under  air  pressure  it  is  easy  to  prevent  the  water 
from  passing  under  the  edge  of  the  shield,  which  is 
horizontal,  and  therefore  acted  upon  by  an  external 
head  of  water  at  all  points  equally.  But  in  the  case 
of  a  tunnel,  the  shield  is  vertical,  and  the  head  increases 
towards  the  bottom  of  the  face.  So  that,  where  a 
porous  water-logged  stratum  is  encountered,  if  the 
pressure  inside  the  shield  suffices  to  keep  out  the 
water  from  the  lower  portion  of  the  face,  it  may  over- 
come the  water  pressure  of  the  upper  portion  and 
force  the  air  out  and  upwards.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  upper  portion  only  is  considered,  the  pressure 
may  not  be  great  enough  to  exclude  leakage  into  the 
lower  part  of  the  face.  Matters  were  further  com- 
plicated in  the  Mersey  aqueduct  tunnel  by  the  head 
of  water  in  the  stratum  varying  with  the  tides. 

The  shield  employed  by  the  second  contractors  was 
too  light  for  the  work,  and  the  cutting-edge  collapsed 
for  one-fourth  of  its  circumference.  When  Mr. 
Deacon  took  over  the  responsibility,  he  had  first  to 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

repair  the  shield,  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  But 
when  the  process  was  completed,  operations  pro- 
gressed at  a  satisfactory  rate,  except  during  twelve 
days  consumed  in  further  repairs.  At  the  end  of 
four  and  a  half  months  the  tunnel  was  completed,  the 
lining  of  cast-iron  segments  being  placed  in  position 
behind  the  shield  as  the  latter  advanced. 

The  aqueduct  is  furnished  with  stop-valves  every  2J 
miles,  and  with  11  automatic  valves,  similar  to  those 
of  the  Thirlmere  aqueduct,  to  shut  in  case  of  a  burst. 

In  1893  a  telephone  system  was  installed  between 
Prescot  and  Vyrnwy,  a  double  line  for  speaking,  and  a 
number  of  short  lines  from  the  automatic  valves  to 
the  nearest  signal  station,  so  that  an  alarm  will  be 
given  immediately  after  the  occurrence  of  an  accident. 

On  November  28,  1898,  the  outlet  valves  of  the 
Vyrnwy  Dam  were  closed,  except  those  for  compensa- 
tion water,  and  by  November  25  of  the  following  year 
a  new  lake  had  been  formed  to  the  overflow  level. 

The  quantity  of  water  now  delivered  through  the 
pipes  (single  line)  from  Oswestry  to  Prescot  Reservoir 
is  15J  million  gallons  a  day. 

The  Birmingham  Scheme 
The  third  aqueduct  that  we  shall  consider  in  some 
detail  is  one  which  in  a  few  years  will  connect  Bir- 
mingham with  the  head-waters  of  the  Wye  in  two 
valleys  of  Radnorshire. 

As  at  Manchester  and  Liverpool,  the  rapid  increase 
of  population  has  compelled  the  authorities  to  derive 

74 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

an  adequate  water  supply  from  a  district  favoured 
with  a  heavy  and  uncontaminated  rainfall. 

Mr.  James  Mansergh,  called  into  consultation  by 
the  Corporation,  laid  his  hand  upon  the  httle  rivers 
Elan  and  Claerwen  in  distant  Wales  as  the  source 
from  which  the  great  hardware  town  should  draw  a 
copious  supply. 

The  scheme  for  impounding  these  rivers  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  Vyrnwy  was  of  course  a  very 
expensive  one,  but  the  common  sense  of  the  Birming- 
ham ratepayers  determined  that  the  outlay  must  be 
faced,  with  the  result  that  a  Bill  introduced  by  Mr. 
Chamberlain  in  1892  received  the  prompt  sanction  of 
Parliament,  granting  the  Corporation  borrowing 
powers  to  the  extent  of  ;£6,6oo,ooo. 

At  a  spot  half  a  mile  below  the  junction  of  the 
valleys  of  the  Elan  and  Claerwen,  is  reared  a  masonry 
dam  120  feet  high  and  600  feet  long,  which  will  pen 
in  a  serpentine  reservoir  extending  a  mile  up  the 
Claerwen  and  about  two  miles  up  the  Elan  valley. 
This  reservoir  is  but  one  of  six  that  will  be  eventually 
formed  by  as  many  dams,  rising  like  a  gigantic  water 
ladder  up  the  valleys.  The  total  storage  will  be 
18,000  million  gallons,  ensuring  a  maximum  daily 
supply  to  Birmingham  of  77  millions,  in  addition  to 
27  millions  of  compensation  water  to  the  Wye. 

At  present  four  dams  are  in  progress ;  the  lowest, 
the  Caban  Coch,  referred  to  above ;  the  next,5  ^^e 
Careg  Dhu,  a  submerged  dam  only  a  few  feet  high  ; 
the  third,  the    Pen-y-Gareg,  128   feet   high   and  525 

75 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

long  ;  the  fourth,  the  Craig  Goch,  120  feet  high  and 
625  long.  The  first  will  impound  8000  million  gallons, 
Pen-y-Gareg  1320  millions,  the  Craig  Goch  2000 
millions ;  the  surface  of  each  reservoir  at  highest  level 
reaching  to  the  foot  of  the  dam  further  up  the  Elan 
valley.  When  a  still  larger  quantity  is  needed  two 
other  dams  will  be  built  across  the  Claerwen,  and 
their  reservoirs  connected  with  the  main  Caban  Coch 
by  a  tunnel  cut  through  the  intervening  hill. 

When  the  dams  are  completed  there  will  be  seen  a 
succession  of  beautiful  lakes  nestling  between  slopes 
well  clad  with  woodland  down  to  the  water's  edge. 

The  masonry  is  of  the  usual  solid  description  pre- 
vailing in  such  works,  the  greatest  breadth  at  the  founda- 
tion being  about  equal  to  that  of  the  maximum  height. 

For  the  accommodation  of  the  workmen  a  regular 
village  has  been  laid  out  on  one  side  of  the  Elan,  with 
streets  of  houses,  a  school,  recreation  rooms,  a  Cor- 
poration public-house,  where  limited  quantities  of 
liquor  are  sold  at  certain  hours,  and  well-ordered 
hospitals.  A  bridge  over  the  river  is  the  only  approach, 
and  every  one  who  would  enter  the  village  to  seek 
employment  is  examined  as  to  his  physical  condition, 
health,  and  capacities,  before  he  is  allowed  to  cross. 
A  sort  of  octroi  is  established  at  the  bridge  end  to  keep 
out  contraband  articles,  among  which  liquor  is  chief. 
Thanks  to  these  arrangements  the  health  and  well- 
being  of  the  community  has  been  maintained  at  a  high 
level,  and  the  precedent  is  one  which  may  with  great 
advantage  be  followed. 

76 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

The  intake  to  the  aqueduct  is  immediately  above 
the  Careg  Dhu,  the  submerged  dam,  surmounted  by 
a  lofty  aqueduct.  The  top  water  of  the  Caban  Reser- 
voir being  822  feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  crest  of 
the  submerged  dam  780  feet,  a  slice  of  water  42  feet 
thick  can  be  withdrawn  before  the  levels  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  dam  begin  to  differ.  This  slice  will  con- 
tain sufficient  water  for  the  daily  compensation  and 
a  27-million-gallon  daily  Birmingham  supply  for  100 
days,  with  the  yield  of  the  watershed ;  and,  when  it 
has  been  withdrawn,  100  days  more  compensation 
water  will  still  remain  in  the  part  of  the  main  reservoir 
below  the  submerged  dam,  while  the  water  im- 
pounded by  the  latter  and  the  two  upper  dams  will 
still  be  available  for  the  aqueduct. 

This  is  74  miles  long,  from  the  Elan  to  the  Frankley 
Reservoirs,  between  which  points  there  will  be  a  fall  of 
170  feet,  or  an  average  hydraulic  gradient  of  i  in  4000. 
About  one  half  will  be  tunnel  and  culvert  work,  the 
balance  six  lines  of  42-inch  iron  and  steel  pipes  for 
the  syphons  (the  longest  17  miles),  in  which  the 
greatest  pressure  will  be  about  250  lbs.  to  the  square 
inch.  The  water-way  in  the  tunnels  and  culverts' is 
8  feet  6  inches  in  breadth  and  height.  The  longest 
tunnels  are  4J,  2 J,  and  i^  miles  in  length.  Wherever  a 
river  is  encountered  the  pipes  will  cross  on  specially 
built  bridges. 

So  in  a  year  or  two  water  will  flow  copiously  from 
the  wide  glen  in  which  the  river  rushes  busily  over  its 
rocky  bed  on  the  way  to  the   broad    Severn.     Cwn 

n 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Elan,  at  one  time  the  residence  of  the  poet  Shelley, 
will  share  the  fate  of  the  village  at  Vyrnwy ;  and  over 
the  Caban  Coch  dam  will  roar,  in  flood-time,  '^the 
finest  waterfall  in  the  kingdom,"  to  use  the  words  of 
Mr.  Mansergh,  the  engineer  of  the  works. 

Other  Dams  and  Aqueducts 

So  numerous  are  these  that  reference  cannot  be 
made  to  all.  But  a  few  are  specially  worthy  of  men- 
tion. The  Periyar  Dam  in  Travancore,  India,  pens 
the  river  of  that  name  into  a  lake  of  nearly  12  square 
miles  area;  and  a  tunnel  through  a  hill  on  one  side  con- 
nects this  reservoir  with  the  Valgai  River,  which  carries 
it  down  to  the  irrigation  of  Madura,  a  district  that  had 
for  time  immemorial  suffered  from  severe  droughts. 

Two  wooden-stave  pipe  lines  join  Denver  City, 
Colorado,  with  a  river  20  miles  away  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  lines  are  30  and  34  inches  in 
diameter,  and  pass  8,400,000  and  16,000,000  gallons 
daily.  Six  miles  of  wooden  pipes,  mostly  6  feet  in 
diameter,  supply  Ogden,  near  Salt  Lake  City,  with 
water  from  a  storage  reservoir  containing  15,000 
million  gallons.  These  wooden  pipes  are  said  to  be 
as  durable  as  those  of  cast  iron,  provided  that  they 
are  always  full  of  water. 

New  York  is  fed  by  three  aqueducts,  the  Old 
Croton,  the  New  Croton,  and  the  Bronx  River ;  dis- 
charging respectively  95,  302,  and  28  million  gallons 
daily.  The  first  is  41  miles  long  ;  the  second  33J 
miles  long,  no  less  than  29!  miles  of  which  is  in 
tunnel  of  i2j-foot  diameter.      As  the  new  aqueduct 

78 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

approaches  New  York  it  makes  a  dive  of  500  feet  to 
pass  the  Harlem  River.     Its  cost  was  ^4,000,000. 

Its  feeder  is  a  huge  reservoir  held  up  by  the  New 
Croton  Dam — probably  the  finest  extant  example  of 
such  work — which  has  a  maximum  height  of  290  feet, 
and  a  thickness  at  the  base  of  over  200  feet. 

There  is  probably  no  branch  of  engineering  in 
which  faulty  design  and  workmanship  can  produce 
more  disastrous  results  than  that  of  dam-making. 
The  sudden  release  of  millions  of  cubic  yards  of  water 
into  a  confined  valley  is  attended  with  consequences 
that  are  truly  awful. 

In  February  1852  the  failure  of  a  dam  in  Yorkshire 
swept  away  the  town  of  Holmfirth.  In  1895  the 
bursting  of  the  Bouzey  Dam,  near  Epinal,  France, 
caused  terrible  loss  of  life. 

But  the  most  appalling  instance  of  all  is  the  memor- 
able Johnstown  disaster  of  1889,  which  will  probably 
have  left  a  permanent  mark  on  the  reader's  mind,  even 
in  these  days  of  quick-crowding  events. 

By  the  courtesy  of  the  proprietors  of  the  Wide 
World  Magazine  the  writer  is  permitted  to  append 
the  following  account  of  this  catastrophe  : — 

"  Johnstown  is  the  county  seat  of  Cambria  County, 
Pennsylvania,  and  on  the  day  of  the  disaster,  May  31, 
1889,  the  Conemaugh  Valley,  in  which  it  is  situated, 
had  a  population  of  about  30,000.  .  .  .  The  town  lies 
in  a  basin  of  the  mountains,  and  is  girt  about  by 
streams.  On  one  side  flows  the  Conemaugh  River, 
on  the  other  Stony  Creek.    The  dam  at  the  reservoir 

79 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

of  the  South  Fork  Fishing  and  Hunting  Club  was 
improperly  constructed.  Originally  built  to  create  a 
reservoir  for  a  feeder  to  the  Pennsylvania  Canal,  it 
was  abandoned  when  the  canal  became  useless,  and 
was  then  taken  over  by  the  club.  The  relief  gates 
were  permanently  stopped  up,  and  gravel,  clay,  and 
mud  used  to  raise  the  embankment  to  a  height  far 
above  that  of  the  original  structure. 

'*  Observant  men,  some  of  them  practical  engineers, 
predicted  a  calamity,  but  no  one  could  be  induced  to 
interfere.  It  is  known  that  before  the  bursting  of  the 
dam  those  in  charge  of  the  reservoir  foresaw  the 
impending  calamity,  and  tried  to  open  a  sluice-way  on 
one  side  and  so  lessen  the  pressure.  In  spite  of  their 
efforts,  however,  the  rising  water  reached  the  top  of  the 
dam,  and  on  Friday  afternoon,  shortly  after  three  o'clock, 
the  overflow  began,  causing  a  break  300  feet  wide. 
It  took  exactly  one  hour  to  empty  the  vast  reservoir. 

*^  Hardly  had  the  warning  rider  reached  Johnstown 
bridge  before  the  great  black  wave  of  water,  from 
20  feet  to  40  feet  high,  which  at  ever-increasing  speed 
had  rolled  down  the  14  miles  from  the  reservoir, 
flung  itself  upon  the  doomed  community,  and  almost 
swept  it  out  of  existence.  Then  followed  a  climax 
of  appalling  ruin — a  scene  which  in  its  agony  of  death 
and  destruction  has  never  had  its  parallel  in  this 
Republic.  With  one  great  swoop  over  3000  houses 
of  brick  and  wood — stores,  hotels,  dwellings,  factories 
— all  were  sent  crashing  and  tumbling  down  the 
roaring  torrent. 

80 


Dams  and  Aqueducts 

"The  seething  mass,  speckled  with  human  beings 
praying  for  Hfe,  was  hurled  against  the  great  stone 
arches  of  the  bridge.  Above  the  roar  of  the  flood, 
the  crash  of  falling  timber,  and  the  swirl  of  the  rushing 
water,  were  heard  the  cries  of  the  dying,  the  wails 
of  the  mangled,  and  the  agonised  cries  for  help  from 
strong  men,  fainting  women,  and  helpless  children. 
The  force  of  the  flood  was  such  that  it  ground  the 
wreckage  into  a  compact  mass,  containing  houses  and 
parts  of  houses,  furniture,  waggons,  cattle,  the  dead 
and  dying — in  short,  a  mass  so  dense  that  upon  it 
rested,  without  sinking,  the  enormous  weight  of  a 
full-sized  locomotive.  And  yet,  hardly  had  the  wreck- 
age begun  to  accumulate  before  fire  broke  out  beneath 
the  arches  of  the  bridge,  and  stifling  smoke  and 
scorching  flames  rose  above  the  scene  of  disaster  and 
added  terror  upon  terror. 

"The  total  damage  done  by  the  rain-storm  during 
the  closing  week  of  May  was  estimated  at  50,000,000 
dollars,  the  largest  loss  caused  by  any  single  calamity 
in  the  United  States,  excepting  the  Chicago  fire.  Up 
to  the  present  3000  bodies  have  been  buried,  and  a 
fair  estimate  of  the  dead  in  the  Conemaugh  Valley  is 
from  7000  to  10,000." 

Thus  Nature  sometimes  takes  her  revenge  upon 
mankind  for  the  fetters  placed  on  her  by  the  art  of 
the  engineer. 

Note. — For  the  information  contained  in  this  chapter  the  author 
is  much  indebted  to  Mr.  G.  F.  Deacon,  M.I.C.E.,  and  Mr.  J.  Perry 
Water  Engineer  of  the  Liverpool  Corporation. 

81  F 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   FORTH   BRIDGE 

A  GLANCE  at  the  map  of  Scotland  serves  to  show 
that  that  country  is  nearly  cut  in  half,  towards  its 
southern  end,  by  the  Firths  of  Clyde  and  Forth 
running  inland  from  the  west  and  east  respectively. 
They  find  their  counterparts  in  the  Severn  and 
Thames  estuaries,  which,  in  a  similar  fashion,  inter- 
rupt direct  natural  communication  between  the 
southern  and  midland  portions  of  England.  The 
interruption  is,  however,  more  serious  in  the  Forth 
than  in  the  Thames,  inasmuch  as  the  intervening 
water  space  is  broader,  and  because  South  Fife  and 
the  Lothians  are  proportionately  more  important  than 
Kent  and  Essex.  In  the  case  of  the  Thames,  too,  the 
estuary  has  narrowed  into  a  river  long  before  large 
towns  are  reached,  and  the  crossing,  even  in  its  tidal 
parts,  is  a  matter  of  small  danger  or  difficulty. 

Until  recent  years  a  traveller  in  the  east  of  Scot^ 
land,  when  desiring  to  pass  from  Edinburgh  to  the 
counties  of  Fife  and  Perth,  had  to  choose  between 
an  inconvenient  and  sometimes  stormy  passage  of  the 
Forth  in  a  steamer  at  Queensferry,  and  making  a  long 
detour  by  rail  round  by  Stirling.  The  loss  of  time 
entailed  in  either  case  was  a  serious  handicap  to  traffic 

82 


From  photos  lent  by']  [_Sir  Benjainin  Baker. 

The  Forth  Bridge— the  Largest  Bridge  in  the  World. 

The  upper  view  illustrates  the  method  of  construction — building  but  from  both  sides 
of  the  central  towers  simultaneously  to  maintain  the  balance  of  the  whole.  In  the 
lower  view  is  seen  the  completed  structure,  with  its  two  main  spans  of  1,710  feet. 

\To  face  p.  S2. 


The  Forth  Bridge 

between  the  counties  north  and  south  of  the  Forth ; 
and  at  length  it  became  so  intolerable  that  schemes 
were  propounded  for  connecting  the  banks  of  the 
Forth  by  a  permanent  means  of  inter-communication. 
As  long  ago  as  1805  a  proposal  was  brought  forward 
to  construct  a  double  tunnel  under  the  bed  of  the 
Forth  ;  but  matters  got  no  further  than  the  issue  of  a 
prospectus  and  pamphlet  setting  out  the  advantages 
of  such  a  tunnel.  Thirteen  years  later,  one  James 
Anderson,  an  engineer  whose  ideas  and  theories  were 
on  too  large  a  scale  for  the  engineering  science  of  the 
time,  suggested  the  erection  of  a  bridge  at  Queens- 
ferry;  the  bridge  to  contain  main  spans  of  1500  to 
2000  feet,  be  33  feet  wide,  and  to  cost  the  very  modest 
sum  of  ^£205,000 !  The  extant  designs  of  the  bridge 
make  it  clear  that  it  was  as  well  for  any  would-be 
shareholders  that  the  scheme  never  passed  beyond 
the  paper  stage. 

When,  however,  in  i860,  that  greatest  originator  of 
vast  engineering  undertakings — the  Railway — moved 
in  the  matter,  things  began  to  wear  a  more  feasible 
aspect.  The  North  British  Railway  planned  a  bridge 
about  six  miles  north-west  of  South  Queensferry,  of 
500-foot  spans.  But  the  project  was  dropped,  to  be 
revived  in  1873,  when  the  Forth  Bridge  Company 
was  formed  to  carry  out  the  designs  of  Sir  Thomas 
Bouch  for  a  suspension  bridge  with  two  large  spans 
of  1600  feet  each.  The  capital  was  actually  sub- 
scribed, and  an  Act  authorising  the  construction 
passed  through  Parliament.     A  commencement  had 

83 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

been  made  on  the  island  of  Inchgarvie  in  the  founda- 
tion of  one  of  the  great  main  piers,  550  feet  high, 
when  work  was  suddenly  stopped  by  the  terrible 
disaster  of  the  Tay  Bridge  in  December  1879.  Sir 
Thomas  Bouch,  as  the  engineer  of  that  ill-fated 
structure,  lost  the  confidence  of  the  company  and  the 
public. 

His  designs  were,  therefore,  laid  aside,  and  investi- 
gations made  into  alternative  methods  of  crossing  the 
Forth.  The  committee  of  experts  appointed  to  draw 
up  a  report  abandoned,  after  due  consideration,  all 
ideas  of  driving  a  tunnel  under  the  estuary,  since  the 
excavation  necessary  for  the  approaches  on  both  sides 
would  involve  a  very  great  outlay,  and  decided  in 
favour  of  a  bridge.  In  1881  Messrs.  Fowler  and 
Baker  (since  honoured  with  a  baronetcy  and  knight- 
hood respectively)  submitted  plans  for  a  cantilever 
bridge,  of  an  altogether  unprecedented  size,  to  be 
constructed  between  North  and  South  Queensferry. 

Before  going  further  into  an  account  of  this 
mammoth  structure,  it  will  be  well  to  explain  the 
principle  of  the  cantilever. 

An  engineer,  let  us  suppose,  is  called  upon  to 
bridge  a  gap  of  several  hundred  feet.  How  he  will 
proceed  to  accomplish  his  task  depends  chiefly  on  the 
natural  conditions  of  the  locality  where  the  bridge 
has  to  be  made.  If,  for  instance,  there  is  dry  land  or 
shallow  water  on  a  hard  bed  below  the  gap,  and  the 
erpendicular  height  is  not  excessive,  he  may  elect  to 
build  steel  or  brick  piers  a  moderate  distance  apart, 

84 


The  Forth  Bridge 


and  to  lift  on  to  the  top  of  these  girders  of  the  truss 
type,  each  completed  before  being  moved,  and  when 
placed  in  position  independent  of  its  neighbours,  its 
weight  being  borne  at  either  end  by  a  pier. 

But  when  conditions  decree  that  the  points  of 
supports  must  be  few  and  far  apart,  the  difficulties  of 
our  engineer  are  much  increased.  In  the  case  of  the 
Britannia  Bridge,  Stephenson  built  huge  tubular 
girders  of  460  feet  length,  and  hoisted  them  into 
position  by  means  of  hydraulic  presses ;  but  the 
difficulties  to  be  overcome  were  enormous,  and  such 
a  proceeding  would  be  practically  impossible  with 
spans  of  500  to  1000  feet.  When  such  are  required, 
the  engineer  resorts  either  to  the  suspension  type  of 
bridge  (to  be  seen  at  Clifton,  Hammersmith,  Niagara, 
Brooklyn),  or  builds  out  from  his  supports  on  both 
sides  simultaneously  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
structure  as  it  proceeds  is  in  a  state  of  balance.  The 
balanced  arms  may  be  rigidly  joined  to  neighbouring 
arms  in  the  middle  of  the  span,  and  the  connections 
over  the  piers  severed  so  as  to  resolve  the  structure 
into  a  series  of  independent  girders  of  the  type  first 
mentioned ;  or  a  gap  may  be  left,  and  this  be  bridged 
over  by  an  intermediate  girder  resting  at  each  end  on 
the  arms.  In  this  case  the  piers,  or  points  of  support, 
are  the  centres  of  pairs  of  cantilevers,  as  the  balanced 
arms  are  named. 

To  make  this  quite  plain,  let  us  suppose  two  chairs 
to  represent  bases  of  two  piers  of  a  cantilever  bridge. 

Men  seated  on  the  chairs  are  the   towers.     They 

85 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

raise  their  arms  simultaneously,  maintaining  their 
vertical  balance.  A  very  small  pressure  would  de- 
press their  hands,  so  they  are  provided  with  sticks, 
which  they  grasp  firmly  at  the  upper  end  and  rest 
against  the  seat  of  the  chairs.  A  weight  now  hung 
from  their  hands  is  borne  by  the  power  of  the  sticks 
to  resist  compression,  and  the  strength  of  the  arms  to 
resist  extension. 

Our  men  are  two  pairs  of  cantilevers.  Between 
them  is,  let  us  say,  an  interval  of  two  feet.  This  is 
bridged  by  a  board  of  proper  length  resting  on  the 
upper  extremities  of  the  two  inner  sticks.  If  a  third 
man  sits  on  this  '^suspended  girder,"  his  weight 
causes  his  companions  to  lose  their  balance  and 
fall  inwards.  So  a  couple  of  heavy  weights  are 
placed  on  the  floor,  immediately  under  the  outer 
hands,  and  straps  are  passed  from  the  anchorages 
over  the  hands. 

The  cantilevers  can  now  withstand  the  weight  on 
the  central  girder  without  losing  their  equilibrium. 
This  explanation  ^  made,  we  will  return  to  the  plans 
for  the  Forth  Bridge. 

On  the  north  shore  of  the  Forth,  at  North  Queens- 
ferry,  a  somewhat  triangular-shaped  promontory  pro- 
jects southwards  for  a  mile  and  a  quarter  into  the  water. 
At  a  distance  of  almost  exactly  a  third  of  a  mile  south 
of  the  outermost  point  lies  the  small  island  of  Inch- 
garvie,  crowned  by  an  ancient  castle.     Between  Fife 

1  Adapted  from  an  illustration  given  by  Sir  B.  Baker  in  a  lecture  at  the 
Royal  Institution. 

86 


The  Forth  Bridge 


and  Inchgarvie  runs  the  main  or  north  channel  of 
the  Forth,  over  200  feet  deep,  and  more  generally 
used  by  shipping  than  the  south  channel,  equally 
deep  and  wide,  between  Inchgarvie  and  the  southern 
shore.  There  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  south  chan- 
nel an  expanse  of  shallow  water  2000  feet  wide. 

The  engineers  erected  three  huge  steel  towers,  each 
resting  on  four  massive  piers,  on  the  extremity  of  the 
North  Queensferry  promontory,  the  western  end  of 
Inchgarvie,  and  in  the  shallow  water  at  the  south  edge 
of  the  south  channel.  Each  tower  is  343  feet  high  from 
the  piers  to  the  summit  of  the  steelwork,  and  a  man 
standing  on  the  latter  would  be  361  feet  above  high- 
water  level.  From  these  huge  supports  six  cantilevers 
are  built  out,  each  680  feet  long.  Those  at  the  north 
and  south  ends  rest  on  viaducts  leading  from  the 
higher  ground  at  a  level  of  157  feet  above  high  water 
— the  level  of  the  permanent  way.  The  other  two 
pairs  terminate  while  yet  350  feet  apart,  and  these 
intervals  are  bridged  by  a  couple  of  girders  resting 
on  the  cantilever  ends. 

The  bridge  thus  contains  two  enormous  spans  of 
1710  feet  each  between  the  towers ;  the  vastness  of 
which  will  perhaps  be  better  comprehended  if  we 
suppose  one  tower  to  be  situated  in  the  Strand  op- 
posite Chancery  Lane,  a  second  in  the  same  thorough- 
fare at  the  Waterloo  Bridge  crossing,  and  the  third 
on  the  Trafalgar  Square  side  of  St.  Martin's  Church. 
In  height  the  towers  would  rival  that  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral. 

87 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

On  the  north  shore  the  bridge  is  approached  by  a 
viaduct  289  feet  11  inches  long,  and  on  the  south  by 
one  of  1978  feet.  The  total  length  of  the  structure, 
including  the  length  of  the  towers — 145,  260,  and  145 
feet  respectively — is  8295  feet  9J  inches. 

The  two  main  spans,  crossing  the  two  channels, 
permit  the  passage  at  all  states  of  the  tide  of  vessels 
whose  topmasts  are  not  more  than  150  feet  above 
high-water  level,  for  a  distance  of  250  feet  north  and 
south  of  the  central  line  of  the  spans. 

The  three  central  towers — to  be  referred  to  as 
the  Fife,  Inchgarvie,  and  South  Queensferry — each 
rest  on  four  solid  piers  of  masonry  built  up  from  a 
firm  foundation.  Viewed  sideways  the  four  vertical 
columns  composing  a  tower  are  parallel,  but  when 
seen  from  the  railway  track  a  decided  taper  is  notice- 
able. The  ''  batter "  of  i  in  7 J,  which  contracts  the 
towers  from  120  feet  at  bottom  to  33  feet  at  top,  is 
maintained  throughout  the  structure  to  the  cantilever 
ends,  where  the  height  has  shrunk  from  330  to  34 
feet,  and  the  width  from  120  to  32  feet  at  the 
bottom. 

Inchgarvie  tower  is  longer  than  the  other  two— 
260  feet  as  against  145 — for  reasons  that  will  be 
seen  immediately.  The  sides  of  the  towers  are 
strengthened  by  huge  tubular  bracings  which  run 
from  the  foot  of  one  column  to  the  top  of  its 
neighbour ;  and  all  four  columns  are  connected 
together  horizontally,  both  top  and  bottom,  by 
powerful  ties.      In  addition  to  these  are  a  number 

88 


The  Forth  Bridge 


of  smaller  bracings  running  in  all  directions,  giving 
the  whole  structure  wonderful  stability. 

Nature  had  favoured  the  engineers  by  placing 
Inchgarvie  in  mid  channel,  and  providing  firm  matter 
on  which  to  erect  the  piers.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  Forth  is  exposed  to  gales,  which  on  several  days 
of  the  year  blow  with  such  fury  as  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  even  paddle-steamers.  The  enormous 
pressure  of  a  wind  blowing  upwards  of  20  lbs.  to 
the  square  foot  on  a  structure  of  the  size  of  the 
Forth  Bridge  had  to  be  reckoned  with.  The  taper- 
ing shape  of  the  cantilevers  towards  their  extremities 
had  the  effect  of  offering  least  surface  to  the  wind 
where  it  had  most  leverage  to  twist  the  cantilevers 
about  their  supports ;  and  the  straddling  of  the 
columns  further  minimised  danger  from  air  pressure. 
But  Messrs.  Fowler  &  Baker  thought  it  best  to  make 
a  slight  concession  to  the  elements,  by  a  contrivance 
that  also  provided  for  longitudinal  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  steelwork  under  varying  tempera- 
tures. 

Accordingly,  one  of  the  four  columns  in  each  tower 
was  fixed  rigidly  to  its  pier.  But  the  other  three 
carried  at  their  lower  extremities  bedplates  moving 
over  corresponding  bedplates  attached  to  the  piers. 
Strong  bolts  passing  up  through  slots  in  the  upper 
plates  allowed  the  latter  to  move  slightly  horizontally, 
some  in  a  circular  path  round  the  fixed  pier,  and  all 
in  the  direction  of  the  centre  line  of  the  bridge.  The 
two  extreme  cantilevers  were  so  fixed  at  the  viaduct 

89 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

ends  as  to  prevent  side-play,  but  permit  longitudinal 
expansion. 

The  Inchgarvie  tower  differs  from  the  other  two 
in  having  neither  its  north  nor  its  south  cantilever 
fixed,  and  both  can  therefore  exert  a  twisting  strain 
on  the  tower.  Great  care  was  necessary  to  make 
due  provision  for  such  movements  in  the  attachment 
of  the  suspended  girders  in  the  middle  of  the  two 
main  spans.  They  are  hung  in  such  a  manner  from 
the  cantilevers  that  longitudinal  expansion  is  possible 
in  both  girders  at  their  Inchgarvie  ends  through  the 
medium  of  sliding  blocks;  while  rocking-posts,  or 
pivots,  are  provided  at  both  ends  to  enable  them  to 
adapt  themselves  to  any  lateral  sway  of  the  cantilevers. 

Inchgarvie  tower,  on  account  of  its  "splendid 
isolation,"  is  also  at  a  disadvantage  with  regard  to 
"  live,"  or  train,  loads.  If  two  heavily-laden  trains 
pass  one  another  at  the  end  of  a  cantilever  they,  exert 
a  great  pull  on  the  central  tower,  tending  to  lift  it 
from  its  further  piers.  In  the  case  of  the  Fife  and 
Queensferry  towers  such  a  loss  of  balance  is  ob- 
viated by  terminating  the  landward  cantilevers  in 
huge  boxes,  each  containing  looo  tons  of  iron,  and 
resting  on  the  end  viaduct  piers.  Such  a  provision 
was  impossible  for  Inchgarvie,  so  the  engineers  in- 
creased its  length  by  115  feet,  to  give  the  columns 
further  from  the  live  weight  a  greater  counteracting 
leverage. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  as  an  example  of  the 
thoroughness  with  which  all  the  work  on  the  Forth 

90 


The  Forth  Bridge 


Bridge  was  carried  out  that,  as  a  preliminary  opera- 
tion, three  wind  gauges  were  erected  in  the  summer 
of  1882  on  the  top  of  the  old  castle  on  Inchgarvie, 
and  daily  records  taken.  Two  of  these  were  fixed 
to  face  east  and  west,  from  which  directions  the  wind 
would  strike  the  bridge  almost  at  right  angles  to  its 
longitudinal  axis.  The  third  revolved,  to  meet  winds 
blowing  from  all  quarters.  The  largest  wind-board, 
15  by  20  feet,  or  300  square  feet  in  area,  had  cut  in 
it  two  circular  openings  of  ij  square  feet  area,  the 
one  at  the  exact  centre  and  the  other  in  the  right 
hand  top  corner,  each  containing  circular  plates  regis- 
tering pressure  independently  of  the  rest  of  the  board. 
The  fact  that  on  March  31,  1886,  the  upper  opening 
recorded  only  22  lbs.  per  square  foot,  while  the 
centre  pressure  rose  as  high  as  28J  lbs.,  seems  to 
show  that  great  wind  pressures  are  very  unevenly 
distributed  over  a  large  surface.  This  is  confirmed 
by  the  records  of  two  additional  revolving  gauges 
set  up  on  the  central  towers,  where  simultaneous 
pressures  varied  as  much  as  10  and  12  lbs.  between 
the  different  piers. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  the  actual  work  of 
construction  was  to  accurately  fix  the  positions  of 
the  main  circular  piers.  Direct  measurements  with 
tape  and  chain  being  impossible,  the  surveyors  had 
recourse  to  triangulation.  A  base  line,  4000  feet  long, 
was  laid  on  the  south  shore;  an  observatory  built; 
three  points  taken  on  the  centre  line  of  the  bridge ; 
and  twenty   other   stations    laid    down   as   required. 

91 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Careful  trigonometrical  calculations  were  made ;  but, 
in  order  that  there  should  be  a  minimum  of  error 
with  regard  to  the  distances  apart  of  the  three  prin- 
cipal stations  on  the  centre  line,  the  measurement 
of  the  north  span  of  1700  feet  from  the  centre  of  the 
north  circular  pier  on  Inchgarvie  to  the  south  circular 
piers  on  Fife  was  checked  in  the  following  manner, 
as  described  by  Mr.  Westhofen  in  his  account  of 
the  Forth  Bridge  :— 1 

*^  In  a  straight  portion  of  the  North  British  Railway 
a  distance  of  1700  feet  had  been  carefully  measured 
and  marked  and  transferred  to  high  posts  at  the  side 
of  the  cutting.  Upon  these  posts  notched  knife-edges 
were  placed  at  the  two  extremities.  A  fine  steel  wire, 
about  ^  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  was  laid  along  the 
span  and  drawn  over  the  knife  edges,  with  a  certain 
amount  of  stress  put  upon  it,  previously  agreed  upon. 
Thus  drawn  up,  the  wire  left  a  certain  amount  of 
sag  in  the  centre,  which  was  carefully  measured  by 
level  and  noted.  Two  narrow  copper  tags  were  then 
-soldered  on  to  mark  the  end  points.  The  wire  was 
then  coiled  up  and  kept  ready  for  use.  The  tem- 
perature was  noted.  On  the  two  shores,  immediately 
under  the  piers  which  marked  the  stations,  places  had 
been  prepared  for  levels,  by  means  of  which  the 
amount  of  sag  in  the  wire  could  be  fixed.  On  a 
calm,  cloudy  day,  with  the  temperature  about  the 
same,  the  wire  was  taken  across  the  north  channel 

1  To  which  account  the  author  is  greatly  indebted  for  his  information. 


The   Forth  Bridge 


and  laid  down  upon  the  prepared  knife-edges  on  the 
piers,  and  with  the  same  amount  of  sag  allowed,  the 
two  copper  tags  soldered  on  should  have  coincided 
with  the  notches  in  the  knife-edges,  provided  the 
distance  was  correct." 

The  results  showed  a  discrepancy ;  but,  after  the 
main  spans  were  completed  and  measurements  taken 
along  the  girder,  the  difference  was  reduced  to  but 
I  inch  in  the  north  span  and  6  inches  in  the  south. 

The  amount  of  preparatory  work  to  be  done  before 
building  operations  got  into  full  swing  was  on  a  scale 
proportionate  to  that  of  the  bridge  itself.  On  the 
south  shore  the  high  ground  was  cut  into  terraces, 
and  on  these  were  erected  a  shop  for  fitting  the 
tubular  parts  of  the  bridge ;  another  for  the  lattice- 
work; a  drill  road;  a  carpenters'  shop;  a  pattern  shed; 
and  a  drawing-loft,  200  feet  by  60,  in  which,  on  a 
blackened  floor,  full-sized  drawings  and  templates  of 
various  parts  of  the  superstructure  were  made.  By 
the  edge  of  the  water  a  sawmill  was  established. 
Houses  for  accommodating  a  small  army  of  workmen 
had  also  to  be  built,  and  a  water-supply  provided. 
Special  services  of  trains  and  steamers  were  organised. 
An  efficient  system  of  handling,  storing,  and  trans- 
porting materials  for  140,000  cubic  yards  of  masonry 
and  55,000  tons  of  steel,  besides  an  equal  weight  of 
temporary  appliances  was  devised.  A  cable  for  tele- 
phonic communication  between  the  various  shops  and 
offices  at  working  centres  crossed  the  bed  of  the 
Forth,     And  we  may  close  a  very  incomplete  list  by 

93 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

naming  the  construction  of  a  jetty  50  feet  wide  and 
2100  feet  long,  extending  from  the  South  Queensferry 
shore  to  the  piers  of  the  Queensferry  tower.  This 
jetty  was  a  considerable  piece  of  engineering  in  itself. 
It  carried  lines  of  rails  for  conveying  stores  and 
steelwork  to  the  Queensferry  piers,  or  to  barges 
plying  between  it  and  Inchgarvie  and  Fife. 

Ten  out  of  the  twelve  circular  piers,  carrying  the 
three  towers,  were  constructed  by  means  of  caissons 
or  coffer-dams.  These  may  be  described  as  contriv- 
ances for  laying  dry  a  space  below  water-level,  or 
preventing  a  free  flow  of  water  over  it.  In  soft 
ground  a  coffer-dam  is  formed  by  driving  down  two 
circles  of  long  contiguous  piles,  leaving  between  the 
circles  a  space  of  a  few  feet,  which  is  filled  in  with 
water-tight  clay-puddle.  The  dam  thus  formed  is  pro- 
vided with  sluice  gates  to  let  in  the  water  when  re- 
quired. In  some  cases  the  water  is  excluded  until 
half-tide,  when  the  rising  pressure  may  make  it  expe- 
dient to  admit  water,  so  as  to  equalise  the  pressure  on 
both  sides  of  the  dam.  When  the  dam  is  strong  enough 
to  resist  high-water  pressure,  it  is  called  a  whole-tide 
dam,  and  the  space  inside  can  be  worked  upon  con- 
tinuously. 

On  rock,  recourse  is  had  to  steel-sided  caissons,  the 
sides  being  cut  to  fit  the  contour  of  the  rock  on  which 
they  rest,  and  their  bottom  edges  made  water-tight  by 
means  to  be  presently  described. 

In  deep  water,  where  outside  pressure  becomes 
very  severe,  an  ingenious  structure  called  a  pneumatic 

94 


The  Forth  Bridge 


caisson  is  used.  This  consists  of  an  upright  circular 
iron  cylinder,  resembling  a  gasometer  in  outline,  built 
of  stout  plates  closely  riveted  together.  Six  or  seven 
feet  from  the  bottom  a  watertight  metal  diaphragm, 
or  floor,  shuts  out  the  lower  part  of  the  caisson  from 
the  upper  air,  and  so  gives  it,  when  the  whole  is  sunk, 
the  properties  of  an  ordinary  diving-bell. 

Leaving  for  a  moment  a  further  description  of  the 
caissons,  let  us  turn  our  attention  to  the  following 
table,  showing  the  depth  of  the  deepest  points  of  the 
twelve  piers  of  the  Forth  Bridge  towers  below  high 
water  : — 


Fife.     .     . 

N.W.,    7  ft.  below  high  water. 

»> 

N.E.,     7  „       „ 

»» 

S.W.,  25  „       „ 

» 

S.E.,    37  „       „            „ 

Inchgarvie 

N.W.,  23  „       „ 

>» 

N.E.,  26  „       „ 

>} 

S.W.,  72  ft.  I  in.  below  high  water. 

» 

S.E.,    63  „  9  „       „              „ 

Queensferry 

N.W.,  85  „  below  high  water. 

»> 

N.E.,  89  „       „ 

>» 

S.W.,  yi  „       ,f             ,, 

}) 

S.E.,    73  „       „            „ 

As  each  of  the  piers  rises  18  feet  above  high  water, 
the  total  height  of  the  structure  at  the  north-east  of 
Queensferry  tower  is  330  +  89  +  18  =  437  feet ! 

No  dams  were  required  for  the  Fife  north  piers. 
The  Fife  south  piers  were  built  inside  steel  and 
wooden  pile  coffer-dams.  In  the  case  of  the  Inch- 
garvie north  piers,  stagings  were   erected   over  the 

95 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

sites  of  the  piers  and  soundings  taken  at  intervals  of 
6  inches  round  the  circumference  of  a  6o-foot  circle. 
An  iron  belt  3  feet  deep  and  60  feet  in  diameter  was 
then  constructed,  and  to  this  were  attached  vertical 
steel  plates  of  a  length  corresponding  with  the  depth 
of  water  immediately  beneath.  As  soon  as  the  whole 
had  been  completed,  the  shell  was  lowered  into  place, 
the  uppermost  part  resting  in  a  groove  cut  in  the 
higher  levels  of  the  rock.  Rows  of  concrete  bags 
were  then  placed  outside,  and  clay  rammed  between 
them  and  the  plates  until  tight  joints  permitted  the 
pumping  out  of  water  at  half  tide,  an  operation  en- 
tailing the  removal  of  590,000  gallons  in  less  than  an 
hour's  time. 

From  a  reader's  point  of  view  the  remaining  six 
caissons  —  the  southern  Inchgarvie  and  all  four 
Queensferry — working  on  the  pneumatic  principle, 
will  be  of  especial  interest,  and  as  such  merit  a  more 
detailed  description. 

The  pneumatic  caissons,  70  feet  in  diameter  at  the 
bottom,  and  of  different  heights,  were  erected  on 
the  South  Queensferry  shore ;  and  when  complete 
were  loaded  with  concrete  and  tools,  and  launched, 
to  be  towed  to  their  final  resting-places.  These  last 
had  already  been  carefully  surveyed  by  means  of  a 
circular  raft  of  planking  and  timber  balks,  70  feet 
across,  having  a  central  upright  staff,  and  a  carriage 
running  on  a  circular  rail  laid  a  foot  from  the  outer 
edge.  Attached  to  the  carriage  was  a  drum  of  steel 
wire,  raising  and  lowering  a  60  lb.  weight  for  taking 

96 


The  Forth  Bridge 


soundings.  The  raft  was  moored  in  such  a  position 
that  its  central  staff  occupied  a  certain  point,  deter- 
mined by  instruments,  and  soundings  were  made. 
At  South  Inchgarvie,  where  the  foundation  is  sloping 
rock,  piles  of  sandbags  were  arranged  at  the  points  of 
greatest  depth,  so  that  the  caissons  should  settle  on 
an  even  keel.  These  caissons,  after  being  towed 
into  position,  were  gradually  loaded  with  deposits  of 
concrete  until  they  began  to  touch  ground  at  low 
water.  Additional  piles  of  sandbags  were  then  placed 
below  in  the  air-chamber,  and  the  rock  was  gradually 
cut  away  on  the  high  side  to  make  a  chase  for  the 
caisson  to  rest  upon  when  loaded  sufficiently  to  lose 
all  its  buoyancy  at  high  water.  The  circular  area 
of  bed-rock  and  the  supports  were  then  removed  by 
degrees. 

Let  us  imagine  ourselves  furnished  with  the  en- 
gineers' permission  to  visit  the  ^*  working  face " 
below  a  caisson.  On  reaching  the  deck  of  the 
caisson  we  see  a  powerful  steam  crane  raising  loads 
of  debris  out  of  an  air-lock,  at  the  upper  end  of 
a  tube  communicating  with  the  air-chamber  60 
feet  below.  We  are  ushered  into  the  workmen's 
air-lock,  a  circular  chamber  with  another  circular 
chamber  3  feet  6  inches  diameter  in  its  centre.  The 
doors  through  which  we  entered  are  then  closed 
tight,  and  a  tap  communicating  with  the  air-chamber 
opened  until  the  pressure  has  gradually  risen  suffi- 
ciently to  allow  the  opening  of  doors  in  the  central 
tube.     We  descend  ladders,  experiencing  a  sensation 

97  G 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

of  great  oppression  on  the  ears  and  eyes,  and  pre- 
sently find  ourselves  among  the  workmen — mostly 
North  Italians,  with  a  sprinkling  of  Germans,  Bel- 
gians, French,  and  Austrians,  who  have  been  brought 
over  by  M,  Coiseau,  the  contractor,  for  this  part  of 
the  work,  not  as  being  better  physically  able  to  work 
under  such  circumstances  than  Britons,  but  as  more 
experienced.  Powerful  electric  lights  of  200  candle- 
power  illumine  the  chamber,  the  sides  of  which  slope 
outwards  towards  the  bottom,  ending  in  a  stout  steel 
cutting-edge.  Two  men,  armed  with  heavy  sledge- 
hammers, are  beating  on  the  top  of  a  crowbar  held 
by  a  third;  they  are  drilling  or  "jumping"  holes  for 
blasting  charges.  As  soon  as  enough  are  made  the 
charges  will  be  inserted  and,  when  every  one  has  with- 
drawn, after  carefully  shielding  the  lamps,  be  fired 
from  above  by  electricity.  Then  the  men  will  de- 
scend again  and  remove  the  debris  by  means  of  the 
skips  that  pass  up  and  down  their  own  air-lock  and 
well.  Under  one  side  of  the  caisson,  where  piers  of 
concrete  bags  support  the  edge,  men  are  thrusting 
out  sandbags  that  have  served  their  purpose ;  and  in 
the  gaps  we  may  perhaps  see  the  startled  visages  of 
salmon,  dogfish,  and  other  denizens  of  the  deep  that 
from  time  to  time  are  attracted  to  the  glare  of  the 
lights  within. 

In  the  Queensferry  caissons  a  somewhat  different 
spectacle  would  present  itself.  The  drills  and  cement 
piers  are  absent ;  there  is  no  preparation  for  blasting, 
for  we  stand  now  on  more  or  less  stubborn  clay.     If 

.    98 


The  Forth  Bridge 

the  sinking  of  the  caisson  is  still  in  its  earlier  stages, 
we  make  the  acquaintance  of  the  air-ejector  for  dis- 
charging the  silt  that  mixes  readily  with  water.  A 
man  standing  in  the  muddy  mixture  lowers  to  its 
surface  the  nozzle  of  a  hose,  and  another  man  turns 
on  a  large  tap  that  controls  the  passage  of  the  com- 
pressed air  of  the  chamber  to  the  outer  atmosphere. 
As  soon  as  the  tap  is  opened  a  rush  of  air  takes  place, 
and  the  nozzle  being  dipped  into  the  liquid  some  of 
the  latter  is  carried  up  the  hose  by  the  momentum 
of  the  air  and  shot  out  at  the  farther  end  of  the 
piping  in  intermittent  spurts.  The  rate  of  ejection 
depends  largely  on  the  skill  of  the  operator. 

On  reaching  the  hard  and  stubborn  clay  below  the 
silt,  the  workmen's  energies  become  unequal  to  the 
task  of  removing  the  *^  spoil "  by  mere  muscular 
effort.  The  forces  of  nature  are  now  called  in.  An 
hydraulic  spade,  the  invention  of  Mr.  Arrol,  is  set  up. 
A  word  about  this  spade.  It  is,  described  briefly, 
an  hydraulic  ram  working  at  a  pressure  of  looo  lbs. 
per  square  inch.  To  its  lower  end  is  attached  a  large 
spade,  and  to  its  top  a  headpiece.  Two  men  fix  it 
vertically,  with  its  head  against  the  roof  of  the 
chamber,  and  another  turns  on  the  water,  which  with 
giant  strength  forces  the  spade  into  the  boulder 
clay,  detaching  a  slice  i6  to  i8  inches  deep  and  4 
inches  thick.  The  spade  is  then  moved  on  a  little, 
and  the  operation  repeated  until  trenches  have  been 
cut  all  over  the  bottom. 

The  air-pressure  under  which  the  excavators  had 

99 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

to  work  rose  on  occasions  as  high  as  40  lbs.  to  the 
square  inch,  yet  not  a  single  death  can  be  directly 
attributed  to  these  abnormal  conditions.  "  The  prin- 
cipal bad  effect  produced  by  the  air-pressure/'  says 
Mr.  Westhofen,  ^'  appears  to  be  that  of  severe  pains 
in  the  joints  and  muscles  of  the  arms  and  legs.  As 
these  have  been  in  most  cases  traced  to  hard  work 
and  copious  perspiration,  and  also  to  too  long  a 
stay  under  pressure,  it  has  been  suggested  as  a  pro- 
bable cause  that  small  globules  of  air  make  their  way 
through  the  skin,  or  between  the  skins,  where  they 
remain  and,  on  the  workmen  returning  to  ordinary 
atmospheric  pressure,  expand,  and  thereby  cause 
the  most  agonising  pains  in  the  joints,  the  elbows, 
shoulders,  knee-caps,  and  other  places.  In  seeming 
confirmation  of  this  the  sufferers  got  instant  relief  on 
returning  to  high  pressure.  Thus  it  happened  that 
many  of  those  afflicted  with  this  disorder  spent  the 
greater  part  of  Saturday  afternoon  and  Sunday  under 
air-pressure,  and  only  came  out  when  absolutely 
obliged  to  do  so.  Various  researches  were  made  by 
members  of  the  medical  staff  in  the  endeavour  to 
give  relief  or  obtain  a  cure,  but,  so  far,  not  with  any 
degree  of  success." 

Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  river  bottom  the  sinking 
of  the  Queensferry  caissons  was  a  matter  of  much 
anxiety  to  the  engineers.  At  low  water  especially, 
when  the  cutting-edge  bore  down  with  greatest  force, 
a  sudden  settlement  was  to  be  feared,  and  therefore 
the  men  were  then  generally  withdrawn  ;  a  precau- 

100 


From  a  photo  lent  by] 


{Sir  Benjamin  Baker. 


The  Fife  Cantilever,  Forth  Bridge. 

This  illustration  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  complex  steelwork  at  the  meeting-places  of 
I  the  chief  members  of  this  bridge.  The  horizontal  tube  over  the  pier,  to  which  the 
tower  column  and  diagonal  support,  besides  the  strut  and  bottom  member  of  the 
cantilever,  are  fastened,  is  called  a  "  skewback."  To  the  extreme  right  are  seen  a 
rivetting  cage  and  a  crane,  which  move  forward  with  the  extension  of  the  cantilever. 


[To  face  p.  loo. 


The  Forth  Bridge 

tion  that  on  one  occasion  at  least  was  amply  justified, 
for  the  caisson  without  warning  sank  7  feet,  filling 
not  only  the  air-chamber  but  also  part  of  the  air-lock 
shaft  with  mud  and  silt. 

The  most  serious  accident  that  took  place  during 
the  building  of  the  bridge  happened  to  the  north-west 
caisson  of  Queensferry.  It  had  been  towed  into  posi- 
tion during  high  tide,  and  at  the  ebb  took  the  ground 
so  firmly  that,  an  unusually  high  tide  occurring  soon 
afterwards,  it  filled  and  canted  over.  The  consequent 
pumping  operations  were  conducted  too  fast,  and 
before  the  caisson  could  be  sufficiently  strengthened 
on  the  inside  the  water  outside  burst  in  the  plates, 
making  a  rent  about  30  feet  long  on  the  lower  side 
This  unfortunate  occurrence  necessitated  the  con- 
struction of  a  heavy  timber  frame  round  the  caisson, 
and  nearly  ten  months  passed  before  it  was  afloat 
again. 

As  soon  as  the  caissons  had  reached  their  full  depth, 
all  tools  and  appliances  were  removed  from  the  air- 
chamber,  and  this  last  filled  up  with  concrete  shot 
down  the  shafts.  Then  the  caisson  above  the  chamber 
was  filled  to  low- water  level,  where  the  granite  courses 
commenced,  having  at  this  point  a  diameter  of  55  feet. 
At  18  feet  above  high-water  level  the  piers  terminate, 
and  are  carefully  levelled  to  receive  the  lower  bed- 
plates, which  are  securely  held  down  by  bolts  built 
into  the  masonry. 

The  piers  being  ready,  the  erection  of  the  steel 
superstructure  commenced  in  the  fixing  of  the  "  skew 

lOI 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

backs"  or  great  steel  tubes,  with  one  side  flattened 
and  attached  to  the  upper  bed-plates.  From  the 
skewbacks  run  out  the  lower  members  of  the  canti- 
levers, the  columns  of  the  towers,  the  huge  diagonal 
struts  uniting  the  foot  of  one  column  with  the  top 
of  its  neighbour,  and  horizontal  girders  towards  the 
other  piers. 

As  soon  as  the  horizontal  work  immediately  above 
the  piers  was  finished,  the  vertical  columns  were  taken 
in  hand.  Huge  plates,  already  correctly  drilled  and 
shaped,  i6  feet  long  and  J-inch  thick,  were  placed  in 
position  by  means  of  cranes.  When  columns  and 
struts  had  reached  a  point  50  feet  above  the  piers, 
stagings  were  built  on  girders  190  feet  long  in  the 
Fife  and  Queensferry  towers,  and  350  feet  at  Inch- 
garvie,  these  girders  resting  in  turn  upon  very  strong 
box  girders  stretching  east  and  V\^est  from  column  to 
column,  and  raised  at  each  end  by  powerful  jacks 
situated  in  the  columns  themselves.  In  this  manner 
the  need  for  continuous  scaffolding  was  obviated,  and 
a  riveting  cage,  consisting  of  a  riveting  machine 
enclosed  in  a  cylinder  of  stout  iron  wire  to  prevent 
loose  rivets,  tools,  &c.,  from  falling  with  disastrous 
effects  on  the  workers  below,  followed  the  stagings 
up  the  columns,  making  permanently  secure  all  the 
work  bolted  in  position  by  the  men  above. 

The  pressure  on  the  rams  required  to  lift  the  stag- 
ings— which  at  Inchgarvie  weighed  700  tons — was 
3920  lbs.  to  the  square  inch.  We  read  that  the  first 
lift  of  the  Inchgarvie  platform  occupied  eighteen  days, 

J02 


The  Forth  Bridge 

whereas  the  last,  owing  to  the  increased  skill  of  the 
men,  took  but  live  hours  ! 

Great  care  was  necessary  in  the  erection  of  the 
towers  to  ensure  that  their  lateral  "  batter  "  and  centre 
lines  should  be  absolutely  correct.  From  time  to 
time  the  structure  was  checked  by  means  of  theodo- 
lites, and  when  any  deviation  from  accuracy  had  been 
observed,  hydraulic  rams  were  applied  to  force  the 
tubes  into  their  proper  position.  Any  one  who  has 
tried  to  bend  or  straighten  the  small  tubes  of  a  bicycle 
will  have  some  faint  idea  of  the  power  needed  to 
master  these  giant  12-foot  cylinders. 

On  the  completion  of  the  towers  the  lower  and 
upper  members  of  the  cantilevers  were  commenced. 
The  upper  members,  being  in  tension,  are  all  straight 
and  of  lattice-girder  work  ;  but  the  lower,  or  compres- 
sion members,  are  of  tubular  construction,  and  spring 
outwards  in  an  arch  of  polygonal  outline,  as  it  was 
found  inexpedient  to  curve  the  tubes.  The  tubes 
shrink  in  diameter  and  thickness  as  they  leave  the 
towers,  and  approach  laterally  to  the  corresponding 
tubes  of  the  nearly  parallel  member  on  the  other  side 
of  the  cantilever.  So  that  at  its  end  the  cantilever  has 
diminished  in  breadth  from  120  to  34  feet,  thereby 
gaining  greatly  in  power  to  withstand  wind  pressure. 

Both  top  and  bottom  members  were  built  out  by 
the  help  of  travelling  cranes,  which,  starting  at  the 
foot  and  summit  of  the  columns,  raised  material  from 
barges  in  the  river  below,  placed  it  in  position,  and 
then  moved  forward.     On  reaching  the  ends  of  the 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

cantilevers  they  climbed  the  upper  bow-shaped  sur- 
face of  the  suspended  girders.  These  were  built  out 
from  their  ends  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the 
cantilevers,  and  a  junction  was  effected  near  their 
centres  as  soon  as  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere 
had  expanded  the  steelwork  of  the  whole  structure 
sufficiently  to  bring  the  final  bolt  holes  opposite  one 
another.  The  falsework  connecting  the  girders  to  the 
cantilevers  was  then  cut,  and  the  girders  rode  free  in 
their  slides  and  rocking-posts.  In  the  case  of  the 
north  central  girder  an  interesting  episode  took  place. 
The  junction  had  been  made,  and  the  men  were 
cutting  the  rivets  of  the  falsework,  when  suddenly  the 
remaining  rivets,  some  thirty-six  in  number,  were 
shorn  by  the  contraction  of  the  structure,  and  the 
plate  ties  parted  with  a  noise  like  that  of  a  large  gun, 
shaking  the  bridge  slightly  from  end  to  end.  The 
incident  caused  a  little  temporary  alarm,  and  lost 
none  of  its  importance  as  reported  in  the  papers,  but 
so  far  from  being  a  mishap  was  merely  an  instance  of 
Nature  saving  Man  a  considerable  amount  of  toil. 

The  permanent  way  was  laid  on  the  internal  viaduct 
traversing  the  Bridge  from  end  to  end.  Four  parallel 
rail  troughs,  i8  inches  deep  and  i6  wide,  were  filled 
for  6  inches  with  teak  and  pine  blocks,  and  on  these 
the  platelayers  placed  longitudinal  teak  sleepers, 
securely  bolted  down  at  intervals  to  the  blocks.  The 
rails,  .  of  ^^ bridge"  section,  are  exceedingly  heavy, 
weighing  120  lbs.  per  lineal  yard.  At  the  sliding  ends 
of  the  central  girders,  where  there  is  allowance  made 

104 


The  Forth  Bridge 


for  a  longitudinal  expansion  of  2  feet,  special  in- 
genious joints  are  provided,  which  enable  the  rails  to 
slide  backwards  and  forwards  without  losing  their 
gauge.  On  each  side  of  the  track  is  a  4-foot  path 
for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  officials  of  the  line  em- 
ployed in  looking  after  the  bridge. 

Before  closing  this  chapter,  which,  for  want  of 
space,  has  not  dealt  with  many  interesting  points  of 
construction,  we  may  notice  some  statistics  which  will 
escape  the  charge  of  dryness  in  that  they  help  the 
reader  the  better  to  appreciate  the  nature  of  the  under- 
taking. Work  on  the  Bridge  began  in  January  1883. 
On  March  4,  1890,  the  (then)  Prince  of  Wales  formally 
declared  the  Bridge  open  to  traffic,  in  a  severe  wind- 
storm that  impressed  the  company  present  by  its 
impotence  to  shake  the  mighty  framework  of  steel. 
The  seven  years  of  work  represented  an  expenditure 
in  materials  and  labour  of  ;^3, 177,286,  the  largest  half- 
yearly  payment  being  made  in  the  last  six  months  of 
1887,  when  ;^253,5oo  were  disbursed. 

The  piers  carry  a  total  weight  of  50,958  tons  of  steel. 
Of  this  Inchgarvie  Tower  alone  weighs  7036  tons,  or 
nearly  as  much  as  the  Eiffel  Tower,  which  could  be 
laid  comfortably  in  either  of  the  two  main  spans ; 
and  a  column  twice  as  high  as  St.  Paul's  laid  at  its 
end  would  barely  fill  the  gap  remaining.  To  sever 
the  top  ties  of  the  towers  a  strain  of  45,000  tons  would 
be  required ;  and  Sir  Benjamin  Baker  himself  assured 
his  audience  at  a  lecture  that  half-a-dozen  of  our 
weightiest  ironclads  could  be  safely  suspended  from 

105 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

the  cantilever  ends,  so  far  as  the  Bridge  was  con- 
cerned. 

The  total  number  of  rivets  is  at  least  6,500,000. 
Allowing  an  average  length  of  2  inches  a  rivet,  they 
represent  a  bar  200  miles  long,  varying  in  diameter 
from  ij  inch  to  J  inch. 

As  many  as  4600  workmen  were  engaged  on  the 
Bridge  during  the  busiest  times.  Among  these  acci- 
dents were  frequent,  but  mainly  attributable  to  the 
indifference  and  carelessness  of  the  men  themselves, 
who,  in  spite  of  repeated  ocular  proofs  to  the  contrary, 
appeared  to  think  that  the  fall  of  a  carelessly  thrown 
chisel  or  other  tool  would  not  be  attended  with 
disastrous  results.  We  are  not  therefore  surprised 
to  learn  that  in  six  and  a  half  years  no  less  than  57 
fatal,  and  106  very  serious  accidents  occurred,  and  it 
comes  as  a  curious  reminder  of  the  unreasonableness 
of  workmen  to  read  that  the  principal  strike  was 
brought  about  by  the  fall  of  a  riveting  stage,  which 
collapsed  because  those  responsible  for  its  manage- 
ment neglected  ordinary  precautions  while  hoisting 
it. 

Nothing  that  can  be  said  will  probably  more  vividly 
present  to  the  reader  the  size  of  the  Bridge  than  the 
statement  that  the  area  to  be  painted  once  every  three 
years,  inside  and  outside,  is  145  acres,  or  that  of  a 
good-sized  farm.  The  whole  of  the  outer  surface  was 
covered  five  times  during  construction,  once  with 
boiled  linseed  oil,  twice  with  red  lead,  and  twice  with 
oxide  of  iron  paint.     A  large  staff  of  men  is  always 

106 


The  Forth  Bridge 


at  work  putting  on  fresh  coatings  to  withstand  the 
corroding  action  of  the  salt  sea  breezes. 

The  railway  passenger  is  in  a  particularly  unfavour- 
able position  to  view  the  Bridge  as  he  passes.  By 
putting  out  his  head  he  can  only  see  a  long  vista 
of  huge  tubes  and  girders,  foreshortened  in  such  a 
way  as  to  lose  their  full  impressiveness.  Moreover, 
he  is  at  an  elevation  near  the  centre  of  the  total 
height.  To  get  a  just  scenic  idea  one  should  ap- 
proach the  Bridge  by  boat  on  the  Forth,  so  as  to 
take  it  in  flank.  Then  what  a  stupendous  structure 
it  is  !  a  thing  of  huge  lines  and  triangles ;  its  geo- 
metrical repetitions  out  of  keeping  with  the  lovely 
landscape,  and  yet  having  a  grandeur  of  their  own. 
With  what  pride  must  the  engineers  have  looked 
upon  the  finished  structure,  the  child  of  their  brains, 
remorseless  consumer  of  steel  and  stone,  reared  amid 
the  clash  of  monster  machines,  nursed  by  small 
armies  of  workmen !  What  were  the  eight  years  of 
battle  with  wind  and  wave,  and  their  trials  and 
struggles,  now  that  the  last  rivet  had  been  driven 
in,  and  the  track  opened  for  the  iron  steed — a  mere 
fly  among  the  steel  web  of  the  Bridge,  yet  the  whole 
built  for  the  passage  of  the  fly  !  Surely  the  Forth 
Bridge  is  the  incarnation  of  engineering  romance,  in 
which  brain  and  metal  and  stone  have  joined  hands 
with  the  powers  of  Nature  to  triumph  over  the 
obstacles  placed  in  man's  way  by  Nature  herself. 

Mr.  Westhofen,  the  engineer  in  charge  of  Inch- 
garvie,  has  an  eye  for  the  picturesque  ;  and  the  author 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

feels  that  he  cannot  do  better  than  quote  in  con- 
clusion his  eloquent  description  of  the  view  to  be 
had  from  the  Bridge. 

"  The  view  from  the  summit  of  the  central  tower  on 
a  clear  day  is  magnificent.  The  broad  river  itself, 
with  craft  of  all  sorts  and  sizes,  in  steam  or  under  sail 
running  before  the  wind,  cutting  across  the  current 
on  tack,  or  lazily  drifting  with  the  tide,  is  always  a 
most  impressive  spectacle,  upon  which  one  can  gaze 
for  hours  with  an  admiring  and  untiring  eye.  And 
such  it  is,  whether  viewed  in  the  glory  of  sunrise  or 
sunset,  in  broad  daylight,  with  the  cloud  shadows 
flying  over  the  surface,  and  a  thousand  ripples  reflect- 
ing the  sun's  rays  in  every  conceivable  shade  of 
colour,  or  in  the  soft  haze  of  a  moonlight  night.  The 
sunsets  in  summer  are  always  magnificent,  whether 
due  to  Krakatoan  volcanic  dust  or  to  the  vapours  of 
the  distant  Atlantic,  but  there  have  also  been  many 
sunrises  in  early  autumn  when  a  hungry  man  could 
forget  the  hour  of  breakfast,  and  one  could  not  find 
the  heart  to  chide  the  worker  who  would  lay  down 
his  tools  to  gaze  into  the  bewildering  masses  of  colour 
surrounding  the  rising  light  of  day.  An  unbounded 
view  more  than  50  miles  up  and  down  river.  ...  At 
night,  too,  a  sight  is  presented  not  easily  forgotten ; 
the  flashing  lights  of  the  May  and  of  Inchkeith,  and 
many  others  stationary,  such  as  the  harbour  lights 
of  Granton,  Leith,  Newhaven,  and  Burntisland,  com- 
bine to  form  a  beautiful  picture.  At  times  of  con- 
tinued east  wind,  when  large  and  small  craft  run  for 

108 


The  Forth  Bridge 

shelter  into  the  Firth,  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  from 
150  to  200  vessels  anchored  in  the  roads,  and  the  long 
straggling  lines  of  their  masthead  lights  give  the 
appearance  of  a  busy  town  of  many  streets  having 
suddenly  risen  from  the  waters. 

**0n  Jubilee  night  (21st  June  1887),  although  the 
atmosphere  was  somewhat  thick,  sixty-eight  bonfires 
could  be  counted  at  one  time  on  the  surrounding 
hills  and  isolated  points,  while  the  great  masses  of 
the  central  towers  of  the  Bridge,  lighted  up  by 
hundreds  of  arc-lights  at  various  heights  where  work 
was  carried  on,  formed,  with  their  long-drawn  reflec- 
tions in  the  waters  of  the  Firth,  three  pillars  of  fire, 
and  afforded  a  truly  wonderful  and  unique  spectacle." 


109 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  TOWER   BRIDGE 

Less  imposing  as  a  structure  than  the  giant  con- 
queror of  the  Forth  is  the  new  bridge  that  spans 
the  Thames,  a  short  distance  east  of  the  Tower  of 
London,  from  which  it  derives  its  name. 

The  Tower  Bridge  is,  however,  of  such  importance 
and  interest,  both  on  account  of  the  problems  that 
it  has  solved,  and  from  the  manner  in  which  it  has 
solved  them,  that  this  great  framework  of  metal  and 
masonry,  so  familiar  to  the  Londoner,  deserves  in- 
clusion among  the  chief  engineering  feats  of  modern 
times. 

The  general  outlines  of  the  Bridge,  being  so  well 
known,  need  little  detailed  description.  Technically, 
it  is  a  three-span  bridge,  the  two  outside  spans  of 
the  suspension  type  carried  on  stout  chains  that  pass 
at  their  landward  ends  over  abutment  towers  of 
moderate  height  to  anchorages  in  the  shore,  and  at 
their  river  ends  over  very  lofty  towers,  themselves 
connected  at  an  elevation  of  143  feet  above  high-water 
level.  Extremely  powerful  ties,  borne  on  the  con- 
necting girders,  unite  the  two  pairs  of  chains,  making 
the  suspension  spans  to  support  one  another  in  a 
horizontal  direction. 

no 


The  Tower  Bridge 

The  central  span  has  two  footways  and  one  road- 
way. The  high-level  girders  bear  the  upper  footway, 
reached  by  two  hydraulic  lifts  situated  in  each  of  the 
main  towers. 

The  most  notable  feature  of  the  Bridge,  unless  we 
except  the  unique  combination  of  steel  and  masonry 
work  in  the  towers,  is  the  method  of  enabling  traffic, 
pedestrian  and  vehicular,  to  cross  the  200-foot  space 
between  the  towers,  at  the  level  of  the  roadway  of  the 
two  outer  spans. 

History  repeats  itself  in  engineering  as  elsewhere, 
and,  as  an  example,  we  see  here  a  reversion  to  the 
idea  of  the  drawbridge  that  shut  off  the  mediaeval 
fortress  or  town  from  the  hostility  of  the  outside 
world.  Principle  apart,  however,  it  is  a  far  cry  from 
the  wooden  platform,  heaved  laboriously  aloft  by 
creaking  chains,  to  the  massive  1200-ton  steel  leaf 
raised  noiselessly  by  the  unseen  energy  of  hydraulic 
engines. 

Before  entering  into  details  of  construction,  it  will 
be  interesting  to  glance  for  a  moment  at  the  ante- 
cedents of  this  latest-born  of  Thames  bridges — the 
reason  for  its  erection,  and  the  considerations  that 
cast  it  into  its  present  form. 

Let  the  reader  take  a  map  of  London  and  fix  his 
eye  on  Blackfriars  Bridge.  A  line  drawn  due  north 
and  south  through  the  bridge  would  approximately 
bisect  the  metropolis.  A  steamboat  travelling  west- 
wards from  this  point  passes  in  succession  under 
Waterloo,  Westminster,  Lambeth,  Vauxhall,  Chelsea, 

III 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Albert,  Battersea,  Wandsworth,  and  Putney  Bridges 
—  nine  in  all  —  open  to  vehicular  traffic.  On  an 
eastward  journey  of  equal  length  it  would,  however, 
have  to  lower  its  funnel  for  but  two — ^the  Southwark 
and  London — assuming  the  Tower  Bridge  to  be  still 
in  the  future.  Yet  both  banks  are  thronged  by  some 
of  the  most  densely-populated  districts  of  London,  so 
near  each  other  and  yet  so  far  for  want  of  means  of 
communication, 

A  further  reference  to  the  map  shows  us  why  things 
should  be  so.  This  is  a  region  of  docks  and  wharves, 
the  latter  reaching  up  to  London  Bridge,  from  which 
we  have  often  watched  the  unloading  of  cargoes. 

The  engineer,  called  in  to  effect  a  compromise 
between  the  crying  needs  of  road  traffic  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  equally  important  interests  of  river 
traffic  on  the  other,  is  able  to  suggest  several  methods 
of  cutting  the  Gordian  knot : 

1.  A  low-level  bridge,  with  an  opening  for  vessels 
through  it. 

2.  A  high-level  bridge,  with  inclined  road  ap- 
proaches. 

3.  A  high-level  bridge,  with  hydraulic  lifts  at  each 
end. 

4.  A  tunnel  under  the  river,  with  inclined  ap- 
proaches. 

5.  A  tunnel  with  hydrauhc  lifts  at  each  end. 

6.  A  ferry. 

Of  these  the  first  would  be  most  convenient  for  the 
landsman,  but  most  inconvenient  for  the  sailor.    The 

112 


The  Tower  Bridge 

second  and  fourth  necessitate  very  costly  approaches, 
the  third  and  fifth  continual  blocks  in  the  traffic  ;  and 
as  regards  ferries,  they  are  at  best  but  very  poor  sub- 
stitutes for  a  bridge. 

Among  the  many  plans  submitted  since  1867  for  a 
bridge,  one  is  particularly  noticeable  for  its  originality 
— that  of  Mr.  C.  Barclay  Bruce.  He  proposed  a 
rolling  bridge,  to  consist  of  a  platform  300  feet  long 
and  100  wide,  which  should  be  propelled  from  shore 
to  shore  over  rollers  placed  at  the  top  of  a  series  of 
piers  100  feet  apart.  The  platform  would  have  a 
bearing  at  two  points  at  least,  and,  according  to  the 
designer's  calculations,  make  the  journey  in  three 
minutes,  with  a  freight  of  100  vehicles  and  1400  pas- 
sengers. Another  engineer,  Mr.  F.  T.  Palmer,  pro- 
posed a  bridge  which  widened  out  into  a  circular 
form  near  each  shore,  enclosing  a  space  into  which 
a  vessel  might  pass  by  the  removal  of  one  side  on 
rollers  while  traffic  continued  on  the  other  side.  As 
soon  as  the  vessel  had  entered  the  enclosure  the 
sliding  platform  would  be  closed  again,  and  that  on 
the  other  side  be  opened  in  turn. 

In  1878  Sir  Joseph  Bazalgette,  engineer  to  the 
Metropolitan  Board  of  Works,  recommended  the 
construction  of  a  bridge  that  should  give  a  clear  head- 
way of  65  feet  above  Trinity  high-water  level,  but  a 
Bill  brought  into  Parliament  for  power  to  build  it  was 
thrown  out  on  the  ground  that  the  headway  would  be 
insufficient,  and  on  account  of  the  awkward  special 
approaches. 

113  H 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

To  avoid  wearying  the  reader  with  a  list  of  projects 
we  will  pass  straight  on  to  that  of  Mr.  Horace  Jones, 
the  late  City  architect,  who  in  1878  was  asked  to 
report  upon  the  various  projects  of  Sir  Joseph  Bazal- 
gette  and  make  suggestions  on  his  own  account.  He 
maintained  that,  as  a  high-level  bridge  would  not 
give  satisfaction,  a  structure  of  the  same  level  as 
London  Bridge,  opening  at  the  centre  by  means  of 
hinged  platforms,  or  bascules,  might  be  advantage- 
ously employed.  From  his  design  has  sprung  that  of 
the  Tower  Bridge — the  joint  work  of  him  and  Sir 
J.  Wolfe  Barry — which  provides  a  central  opening 
of  200  feet  clear  and  a  headway  of  135  feet.  An  Act 
for  its  construction  having  been  passed  in  the  autumn 
of  1885,  contracts  were  let  for  the  foundations  of  the 
piers  and  abutment  towers  up  to  the  level  of  4  feet 
above  high-water  mark.  On  June  21,  1886,  the  (then) 
Prince  of  Wales  laid  the  foundation  stone. 

The  masonry  piers  on  which  the  main  towers 
stand  are  remarkable  for  their  size — 100  feet  wide  by 
205  long — which  exceeds  that  of  any  in  the  world, 
with  the  exception  of  those  of  the  Brooklyn  Bridge. 
The  piers  being  but  200  feet  apart,  the  engineers, 
who  were  under  agreement  to  leave  a  clear  way  of 
160  feet  between  them,  could  not  build  both  simul- 
taneously as  a  whole,  since  the  scaffoldings  would 
have  narrowed  the  opening  beyond  legal  limits. 
They  therefore  adopted  a  system  of  small  caissons, 
which  should  be  sunk  so  as  to  form  a  broad  wall 
round  the  area  of  the  pier,  and  enclose  a  space  of 

114 


The  Tower  Bridge 

34  by  124J  feet,  to   be   dealt  with   as  soon   as  the 
exterior  caissons  were  in  position. 

On  the  north  and  south  sides  of  each  pier  four 
caissons  were  sunk,  28  feet  square  and  2J  feet  apart, 
each  end  of  the  rows  being  joined  by  a  triangular  cais- 
son. While  one  pier  was  in  course  of  construction,  the 
shoreward  row  of  caissons  for  the  other  pier  was  also 
sunk,  thus  saving  time  without  obstructing  the  river. 

Reference  has  been  made  in  the  previous  chapter 
to  the  sinking  of  caissons  ;  so  it  need  here  only  be 
stated  that  at  the  Tower  Bridge  no  pneumatic 
caissons  were  employed,  but  only  the  open  variety. 
Divers  cleared  away  the  gravel  and  mud  until  a 
caisson  had  descended  such  a  distance  into  the  stif¥ 
London  clay  at  which  it  was  thought  safe  to  pump 
out  the  water  at  low  tide,  and  then  navvies  were 
turned  in  with  pick  and  shovel.  At  a  depth  of 
19  feet  the  caissons  were  undercut,  i.e.  the  workers 
burrowed  beneath  their  lower  edges  into  the  clay 
for  a  distance  of  5  feet  horizontally,  and  7  feet 
vertically.  The  undercutting  proceeded  in  sections 
— filled  with  concrete  in  succession — so  that  the 
caisson  should  not  be  left  unsupported.  When  all 
the  ten  external  caissons  had  been  sunk  and  filled  in, 
the  narrow  spaces  between  them  were  also  filled,  and 
the  interior  enclosure  pumped  dry  and  excavated. 
Finally,  there  emerged  from  the  water  a  couple  of 
gigantic  piers  of  concrete,  granite,  and  bricks,  able 
to  withstand  without  settlement  a  load  of  70,000  tons. 
Their  cost  was  ^gi  11,122. 

IIS 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

The  contract  for  the  steelwork  in  the  superstructure 
was  let  to  Sir  WilHam  Arrol  &  Co.,  of  Glasgow,  who, 
as  the  reader  will  remember,  had  already  taken  an 
important  part  in  the  construction  of  the  Forth 
Bridge. 

Before  any  metal-work  could  be  placed  in  position, 
it  was  necessary  to  erect  stagings  from  the  shore 
abutments  to  the  centre  piers.  This  work  occupied 
some  months,  and  when  it  was  completed  opera- 
tions at  once  commenced  on  the  main  towers. 

Each  tower  consists  of  four  octagonal  columns, 
connected  at  a  height  of  60  feet  above  the  piers  by 
plate  girders,  6  feet  deep,  across  which  are  laid 
smaller  girders  to  carry  the  first  landing.  Twenty- 
eight  feet  higher  is  the  second  landing,  similarly 
constructed,  and  above  that,  at  an  equal  distance,  the 
third  landing  leading  to  the  high-level  footway.  The 
columns  each  rested  on  massive  granite  slabs  pre- 
viously covered  with  three  layers  of  specially  prepared 
canvas  to  make  the  pressure  even  and  the  joint  water- 
tight. They  were  keyed  to  the  bed-stones  by  great 
bolts  built  into  the  piers. 

The  first  length  of  column  plates  having  being 
riveted  in  position  by  hydraulic  riveters,  the  second 
length  was  added  by  means  of  a  crane  placed  on  the 
piers,  and  when  the  crane  had  been  raised  aloft  on 
special  trestles  the  third  length  followed.  The  first 
landing  served  as  a  platform  from  which  to  build 
upwards  in  like  manner  to  the  second,  which  in  turn 
became  the  base  of  operations.    All  four  columns  in 

116 


The  Tower  Bridge 

each  tower  were  braced  diagonally  to  resist  the  wind 
pressure — calculated  at  a  maximum  of  56  lbs.  to  the 
square  inch,  or  several  times  greater  than  has  ever 
been  registered  in  that  locality. 

The  columns  finished,  and  the  top  landing  girders 
in  position,  the  workmen  attacked  the  high-level  foot- 
way. This  was  built  out  from  both  towers  simul- 
taneously on  the  over-hang  principle.  First,  the 
portions  of  the  cantilevers  immediately  over  the 
towers  were  erected  and  anchored  to  the  shoreward 
columns.  Then  cranes  were  placed  on  the  completed 
portions  and  moved  forward  to  add  fresh  plates  until 
the  cantilevers  had  reached  the  point  where  the 
central  suspended  girder  began.  As  at  the  Forth 
Bridge,  this  was  built  on  to  the  cantilever  ends,  to 
which  it  was  attached  by  temporary  ties,  and  when 
the  centre  plates  had  been  made  secure,  the  ties 
were  cut,  allowing  it  to  ride  free  at  each  extremity. 
Throughout  the  construction  of  the  upper  footway 
the  greatest  care  had  to  be  observed  to  prevent  rivets, 
fragments,  and  tools  falling  into  the  river  below  to 
the  peril  of  passengers  on  passing  vessels. 

Along  the  upper  boom  of  the  footway  run  the 
great  ties  connecting  the  suspension  chains  at  their 
river  ends.  Each  of  the  two  ties  is  301  feet  long, 
and  composed  of  eight  plates  2  feet  deep  and  i  inch 
thick,  terminating  in  large  eye-plates  to  take  the  pins 
uniting  them  to  the  suspension  chains.  The  con- 
struction of  these  chains  was  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing and  at  the  same  time  most  delicate  parts  of  the 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

whole  undertaking.  Each  chain  is  composed  of  two 
parts,  or  links  ;  the  shorter  dipping  from  the  top  of 
the  abutment  tower  to  the  roadway,  the  longer  rising 
from  the  roadway  to  the  summit  of  the  main  tower. 
The  links  have  each  a  lower  and  upper  boom,  con- 
nected by  diagonal  bracings  so  as  to  form  a  rigid 
girder.  They  were  built  in  the  positions  they  had 
finally  to  occupy,  supported  on  trestles,  and  were 
not  freed  until  they  had  been  joined  by  huge  steel 
pins  to  the  ties  crossing  the  central  span  and  to  those 
on  the  abutment  towers.  In  order  that  the  reader 
may  have  a  clear  conception  of  the  action  of  the  ties 
and  chains,  we  will  personally  conduct  him  from  end 
to  end  of  the  series.  At  the  north  end  of  the  bridge 
is  a  huge  mass  of  concrete  surrounding  an  anchorage 
girder  40  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  deep,  to 
which  is  attached  a  land  tie  springing  up  to  the  shore 
edge  of  the  abutment  top.  At  the  anchorage  end  the 
tie  is  joined  by  a  pin,  2  feet  in  diameter,  to  the  girder, 
and  at  its  upper  end  to  the  horizontal  hnks  crossing 
the  abutment  tower.  The  tie  is  built  up  of  twelve 
plates  21  inches  wide  and  nearly  an  inch  thick.  The 
link  plates  are  5  to  5J  feet  wide  and  |  inch  thick  and 
22  feet  long.  At  each  end  they  rest  on  roller  bearings 
moving  over  3-inch  steel  plates  very  carefully  levelled. 
Then  comes  the  short  link  of  the  chain,  attached  by 
eye-plates  and  a  steel  pin,  2J  feet  in  diameter,  to  the 
tie  and  also  to  the  lower  end  of  the  long  link,  at  which 
point  both  are  joined  to  the  girders  of  the  roadway. 
Passing  up  the  long  link  we  reach  the  top  of  the  towers 

118 


The  Tower  Bridge 


and  note  the  great  pins  and  roller  bearings  at  each 
end  of  the  301-foot  ties.  Then  down  the  south  long 
link  to  the  roadway,  up  the  short  link,  and  over  more 
roller  bearings  to  the  last  section  of  the  series — twelve 
plates  35  inches  wide  secured  by  rivets  to  the  south 
anchorage  girder,  which  is  of  larger  dimensions  than 
its  northern  fellow.  This  arrangement  of  chains, 
links,  and  ties  permits  a  slight  amount  of  horizontal 
motion  to  compensate  the  stresses  of  unequal  loading 
on  the  two  suspension  spans,  and  the  alterations  in 
the  length  of  the  metal  connections  in  varying  tempera- 
tures. Roller  joints  are  also  made  in  the  flooring  of  the 
side  spans  at  each  end  and  at  the  junction  of  the  links 
to  allow  for  longitudinal  expansion  and  contraction. 

The  boring  of  the  pin  holes  was  a  matter  of  great 
delicacy  and  considerable  difficulty.  The  holes  in  the 
eye-plates  of  ties  and  chains  had  been  cleared  to 
within  half-an-inch  of  their  final  diameter  before  leav- 
ing the  contractor's  works  at  Glasgow,  and  the  finish- 
ing touches  were  added  when  the  plates  were  in 
position.  The  labour  of  expanding  out  the  holes 
to  their  full  diameter  was  equivalent  to  boring  a 
hole  2  feet  6  inches  in  diameter  through  6^  feet  of 
solid  steel ;  and  most  of  this  boring  had  to  be  done 
in  somewhat  awkward  positions  at  the  top  of  the 
main  towers  and  abutments,  whither  it  was  necessary 
to  transport  engines,  boilers,  and  boring  tools.  The 
fixing  of  these  generally  occupied  as  long  a  time  as 
the  actual  boring,  since  the  greatest  accuracy  had  to 
be  observed  throughout  the  process, 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

The  roadway  of  the  suspension  spans  is  carried  on 
cross  girders,  6i  feet  long,  weighing  22  tons.  At  each 
end  they  are  connected  by  6-inch  pins  to  the  suspen- 
sion rods  hanging  vertically  from  the  chain  links. 
The  rods  are  from  5J  to  6  inches  in  diameter,  and 
furnished  with  a  screw-coupling  at  their  centres  to 
enable  the  accurate  adjustment  of  the  girders  to  the 
true  level  of  the  roadway.  Before  leaving  the  works 
each  rod  had  been  subjected  to  a  tension  of  200  tons, 
so  that  of  their  sufficiency  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
Longitudinal  girders  of  smaller  section  were  then  laid 
on  the  transverse  girders,  and  on  these  again  corru- 
gated floor  plates,  afterwards  filled  up  with  concrete 
to  form  a  slightly  convex  surface,  over  which  wood 
paving  blocks  were  placed. 

We  may  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  central  span 
of  the  roadway,  which  forms,  perhaps,  the  most 
interesting  part  of  the  whole  structure. 

Each  bascule,  or  leaf,  of  the  drawbridge  consists  of 
four  parallel  girders,  13 J  feet  apart,  and  about  160  feet 
long.  When  lowered  it  projects  horizontally  100  feet 
towards  the  opposite  tower,  spanning  exactly  half  of 
the  opening.  The  point  of  balance  is  a  solid  pivot, 
I  foot  9  inches  in  diameter  and  48  feet  long,  that 
passes  through  the  girders  50  feet  from  their  shore 
ends.  The  pivot  is  keyed  to  the  girders,  and  rotates 
on  roller  bearings  carried  by  eight  girders  crossing 
the  piers  horizontally  from  north  to  south,  themselves 
borne  on  girders  under  their  ends. 

The  chief  difficulty  attending  the  erection  of  the 
120 


The  Tower  Bridge 

bascules  resulted  from  the  condition  compelling  the 
contractors  to  leave  a  clear  way  of  i6o  feet  between 
the  towers.  Under  other  circumstances  the  girders 
might  have  been  completed  before  being  brought 
into  line  and  connected  together.  As  it  was,  the 
engineers  first  built  the  portions  on  the  shore  side 
of  the  pivot,  added  a  short  section  of  the  river 
side  steelwork,  and  launched  the  incomplete  girders 
from  the  main  stage  close  to  the  piers  into  the  bascule 
chambers.  A  temporary  steel  mandrel  was  inserted 
to  carry  their  weight  while  they  were  turned  into  a 
vertical  position,  and  then  withdrawn  to  make  room 
for  the  permanent  pivot,  weighing  25  tons.  The 
outer  ends  were  added  to  until  a  point  53  feet  from 
the  pivot  had  been  reached,  and  work  in  this  direction 
then  stopped  until  the  raising  and  lowering  of  the 
leaves  for  purposes  of  adjustment  had  been  concluded ; 
after  which  the  girders  were  completed  vertically. 

The  leaves  are  moved  by  means  of  pinions  (or  cog- 
wheels) engaging  with  racks  fixed  to  the  edge  of  two 
steel  quadrants  riveted  to  their  two  outside  girders. 
The  accurate  attachment  of  the  racks  was  a  some- 
what difficult  business  on  account  of  the  confined 
space  in  which  the  men  had  to  work. 

To  preserve  the  balance  of  the  bascule  it  was  neces- 
sary to  load  the  shorter,  or  inner,  arm  with  counter- 
poises, consisting  of  290  tons  of  lead  and  60  tons 
of  iron  enclosed  in  ballast  boxes  at  the  extreme  ends 
of  the  girders.  The  function  of  the  raising  gear  is 
merely  to   overcome  the  inertia  of  the  1200  tons  of 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

the  leaf,  and  the  friction  caused  by  wind  pressure  on 
the  exposed  surface.  In  designing  the  hydraulic 
machinery  allowance  was  made  for  a  wind  pressure 
of  56  lbs.  to  the  square  foot,  which  would  produce 
a  force  of  140  tons  acting  with  a  leverage  of  56  feet. 

The  source  of  power  is  a  building  on  the  east  side 
of  the  southern  approach,  where  are  stationed  two 
large  accumulators  with  20-inch  rams  loaded  to  give 
a  pressure  of  from  700  to  800  lbs.  per  square  inch. 
An  accumulator  is  the  hydraulic  counterpart  of  the 
reservoir  bellows  in  an  organ.  It  ensures  a  steady 
pressure,  as  its  capacity  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
engines  it  operates ;  and  since  the  pumping  engines 
can  be  constantly  at  work  filling  it,  there  is  always 
a  plentiful  supply  of  energy  stored  against  the 
periodical  opening  and  shutting  of  the  bascules.  The 
water  is  led  through  two  6-inch  pipes,  provided  with 
flexible  joints  at  points  of  movement,  to  the  two  sets 
of  engines  on  the  south  pier  ;  and  to  those  on  the 
north  pier  through  continuation  pipes  passing  up  the 
south  tower,  across  the  footway,  and  down  the  north 
tower.  After  use,  the  water  is  returned  through  a 
7-inch  pipe  to  the  pumping  engines  placed  in  two 
of  the  arches  forming  the  southern  approach  to  the 
bridge. 

The  engines  are  duplicated  on  each  pier  to  avoid 
the  inconvenience  that  would  result  from  the  break- 
down of  a  single  installation.  The  power  of  the 
engines  is  transmitted  to  the  racks  through  a  series 
of  cog-wheels,  which  increase  the  effective  pressure 

122 


The  Tower  Bridge 


of  the  pistons  almost  sevenfold.  Hydraulic  energy 
is  also  used  to  work  the  two  hydraulic  lifts  in  each 
main  tower,  and  to  shoot  home  and  withdraw  the 
four  locking  bolts  at  the  outer  extremity  of  the 
southern  leaf. 

In  this  connection  the  following  extract  from  Mr. 
J.  E.  Tuit's  fine  book  on  the  bridge  will  be  of  interest. 
"  Every  precaution  has  been  taken  so  that  the  opera- 
tion of  opening  and  shutting  the  bridge  shall  be 
rendered  as  safe  as  possible.  By  an  automatic 
arrangement  attached  to  the  hydraulic  engines  on 
the  piers  they  are  caused  to  close  the  valves  which 
admit  the  high-pressure  water  just  at  the  end  of  the 
operation  of  raising  or  lowering  the  leaves,  so  that 
even  if  the  man  in  charge  were  to  make  a  mistake 
through  an  error  of  judgment,  or  be  prevented  from 
attending  to  his  duties,  the  leaves  would  gradually 
bring  themselves  to  rest  either  in  a  vertical  or  hori- 
zontal position  without  the  least  chance  of  any  cata- 
strophe. As  a  still  further  precaution,  however, 
hydraulic  buffers  are  fixed  in  such  positions  that  if 
the  men  in  charge  lost  control  of  the  bridge,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  apparatus  above  alluded  to  for 
bringing  up  the  motion  of  the  leaves  were  to  fail, 
their  impact  would  be  taken  by  these  buffers,  which 
would  bring  them  to  rest  in  the  same  manner  as  that 
in  which  the  hydraulic  cylinders  that  are  attached 
to  heavy  guns  take  up  the  recoil," 

In  cabins  at  the  east  and  west  ends  of  each  pier 
are  indicators  to  tell  the  men  in  charge  whether  the 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

accumulators  are  full  before  starting  the  engines,  and 
whether  the  locking  bolts  are  in  their  proper  position. 
Further  provision  is  made  to  prevent  the  raising  of 
the  bascules  before  they  are  cleared  of  traffic.  The 
policemen  in  charge  have  to  stretch  a  chain  across 
the  entrance  to  each  pier.  As  soon  as  the  chain  is 
fixed,  the  man  carrying  it  will  be  able  to  turn  on 
the  water  to  a  small  cylinder  that  draws  it  tight  and 
at  the  same  time  releases  the  locking  arrangement 
of  the  levers  in  the  cabin.  So  that  until  the  chain  has 
opposed  a  barrier  to  the  traffic,  it  is  impossible  to 
draw  the  locking  bolts  at  the  centre  of  the  span. 

The  masonry  of  the  towers  is  independent  of  the 
steelwork  that  it  encloses.  In  fact,  great  care  has 
been  taken  that  there  shall  be  no  adhesion  between 
the  two  substances.  This  part  of  the  structure, 
carried  out  by  Messrs.  Perry  &  Co.,  calls  for  no 
special  attention  here,  though  it  impresses  itself 
favourably  on  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  Objections 
have  been  raised  to  the  external  masonry  on  the 
ground  that  it  is  a  "  hollow  sham,"  but  we  fancy  that 
were  the  covering  suddenly  stripped  away,  so  as  to 
expose  the  steel  skeleton  beneath,  many  objectors 
would  be  silenced.  The  general  opinion  is  that  with 
so  many  metal  structures  exposing  the  nakedness  of 
their  outlines  the  London  Corporation  is  to  be  con- 
gratulated on  having  thus  boldly  made  a  concession 
to  the  aesthetic  tastes  of  the  community  which 
does  not  detract  from  the  value  of  the  bridge  as  a 
utilitarian  erection.      The   cost  of   construction   was 

124 


The  Tower  Bridge 

enhanced,  but  the  result  is  one  of  which  Londoners 
will  be  proud  in  years  to  come. 

The  Tower  Bridge,  typical  of  modern  engineering 
skill,  has  an  interesting  connection  with  the  old 
London  Bridge — itself  a  mechanical  triumph  con- 
sidering the  science  of  the  time — built  towards  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century.  That  bridge,  which  stood 
the  wear  and  tear  of  nearly  700  years,  was  endowed 
with  certain  lands  which,  with  the  growth  of  London, 
became  extremely  valuable,  and  are  now  known  as 
the  Bridge  House  Estates.  The  revenue  from  them 
has  enabled  the  Corporation  of  London  to  rebuild 
the  London  Bridge,  throw  another  across  the  Thames 
at  Blackfriars,  and  also  to  construct  the  subject  of 
this  chapter. 

We  may  conclude  the  account  by  a  few  figures. 
The  bridge  is  exactly  half  a  mile  long,  including  the 
approaches,  the  side  spans  each  occupying  270  feet 
clear.  Its  extreme  height,  measured  from  the  bottom 
of  the  foundations  to  the  summit  of  the  main  tower 
ridge-tiles,  is  293  feet.  The  roadway  of  the  side  spans 
is  35  feet  wide,  flanked  on  each  side  by  a  i2j-foot 
paved  footway.  In  the  central  span  the  widths  are 
reduced  by  3  and  4  feet  respectively.  Its  construc- 
tion, which  occupied  eight  years,  consumed  235,000 
cubic  feet  of  granite  and  stone,  20,000  tons  of  cement, 
70,000  cubic  yards  of  concrete,  31  million  bricks, 
and  14,000  tons  of  iron  and  steel.  The  columns  on 
the  main  piers  and  abutments  required  five  miles  of 
steel  plates. 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

The  total  cost  was  estimated  at  three-quarters  of 
a  million  pounds,  of  which  the  bridge  itself  represents 
rather  more  than  half  a  million. 

Sir  J.  Wolfe  Barry,  the  engineer  responsible  for  the 
construction,  includes  among  his  other  important 
works  the  great  Barry  Dock  near  Cardiff,  and  the 
completion  of  the  Inner  Circle  Railway  between  the 
Mansion  House  and  Aldgate  stations. 


126 


CHAPTER  VI 

AMERICAN  BRIDGES 

The  second  place  among  monster  bridges  is  held  by 
the  Brooklyn  Suspension  Bridge,  connecting  Man- 
hattan Island,  on  which  stands  New  York  Proper, 
with  Long  Island.  Previously  to  1883  New  York, 
with  its  population  of  two  millions,  and  Brooklyn, 
counting  a  million  inhabitants,  were  kept  in  com- 
munication across  a  narrow  strait,  12  miles  long, 
opening  into  Long  Island  Sound,  known  as  the  East 
River,  by  a  number  of  steam  ferries,  one  of  which 
alone  transports  22,000,000  foot  passengers  and 
1,100,000  vehicles  annually. 

With  the  growth  of  population  the  absence  of  some 
permanent  connection  between  the  two  islands  was 
so  severely  felt  that  it  was  determined  to  link  the  two 
with  a  bridge  of  such  a  height  above  the  water  as  to 
offer  no  obstruction  to  the  shipping  passing  down 
the  Sound  to  New  York  Harbour.  The  spot  selected 
for  the  bridge  is  at  the  southern  end  of  the  East  River 
strait,  where  it  narrows  down  to  a  width  of  rather 
more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile. 

In  deciding  on  the  suspension  type,  American  en- 
gineers had  two  good  precedents — the  Ohio  River 
and  Clifton  Suspension  at  Niagara,  which  then  held 

127 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

the  record  in  point  of  span.  The  Ohio  Bridge  at 
Cincinnati  had  a  clear  leap  of  looo  feet ;  while  that 
at  Niagara  measured  1268  feet  between  the  centres 
of  the  towers,  standing  on  either  side  of  the  gorge 
below  the  Falls.  This  bridge,  opened  to  traffic  in 
1869,  as  a  result  of  but  twelve  months*  work,  hung 
from  two  cables  1888  feet  long,  passing  over  rollers 
on  the  summit  of  the  towers,  which  were  built  of 
wood  strengthened  by  massive  iron  frames.  The 
cables  each  contained  931  wires,  -f-inch  diameter, 
twisted  into  seven  ropes.  When  loaded  with  an 
average  amount  of  traffic  the  bridge  weighed  360  tons. 
To  prevent  excessive  lateral  oscillation  strong  steel 
guy  ropes  were  strung  from  various  points  on  the 
structure  to  anchorages  on  the  side  of  the  gorge. 
After  standing  and  doing  useful  service  for  many 
years,  the  bridge  was  destroyed  by  one  of  the  tremen- 
dous hurricanes  that  periodically  sweep  down  the 
Niagara  gorge  as  through  a  funnel. 

There  remained,  however,  the  Niagara  Railway 
Suspension  Bridge,  completed  in  1855.  This  has  a 
span  of  821  feet,  the  track  passing  245  feet  above 
the  river.  It  should  be  explained  that  the  lower 
chord  of  the  bridge  is  a  girder  with  two  floors,  the 
upper  of  which  carries  the  railroad,  while  the  lower 
serves  for  foot  and  ordinary  vehicular  traffic.  As 
originally  constructed  two  masonry  towers  bore  the 
weight  of  the  four  cables — each  containing  3640  iron 
wires  — that  support  the  girder.  After  twenty-six 
years  of  wear  it  was  discovered  that  these  towers  had 

128 


American  Bridges 

been  bent  inwards  to  a  dangerous  extent,  owing  to 
the  rollers  on  which  the  cable  saddles  work  at  the 
tower  tops  having  become  clogged  with  cement.  The 
engineers  therefore  built  iron  skeleton  towers  out- 
side the  masonry,  and  without  in  any  way  interrupting 
the  traffic  of  the  bridge,  transferred  the  cables  from 
the  stone  to  the  iron  supports  by  means  of  powerful 
hydraulic  jacks.  This  is  a  most  interesting  feat,  and 
probably  unique.  When  the  bridge  was  in  course  of 
construction  Robert  Stephenson,  engaged  on  the  Vic- 
toria Tubular  Bridge  at  Montreal,  said  to  the  designer 
of  the  Niagara  Suspension — Mr.  John  A.  Roebling — "If 
your  bridge  succeeds,  mine  is  a  magnificent  blunder." 
The  light  American  structure  did  succeed.^ 

The  Brooklyn  Bridge,  like  that  at  Niagara,  is 
carried  on  four  main  cables.  The  supports  are  two 
huge  towers,  rising  272  feet  above  high  water.  At 
the  river  level  they  measure  140  feet  broad  by  50 
deep,  which  dimensions  decrease  to  120x40  feet  at 
the  summit. 

On  the  New  York  side  the  masonry  is  carried  down 
to  rock  78  feet  below  water  level,  giving  the  tower  a 
total  height  of  350  feet.  The  masonry  built  into  the 
two  towers  aggregated  85,000  cubic  yards.  The  cen- 
tral span  is  1595^  feet.  Between  the  towers  and  the 
anchorages  are  two  930-foot  spans ;  and  beyond  these 
approaches  that  add  2534  feet  to  the  total  length — 
5989  feet,  or  about  a  mile  and  a  furlong. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  the  bridge  is  the 

*  *'  The  Railways  of  America,"  by  Thomas  M.  Cooley. 
129  I 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

cable  work.  Each  of  the  four  cables,  anchored  at 
either  end  to  massive  23-ton  plates,  embedded  in 
huge  masses  of  masonry,  each  representing  more  than 
44,000  tons,  contains  5296  galvanised  steel  wires, 
which  were  carried  separately  from  tower  to  tower, 
and  bound  up  together  in  a  parallel  formation  into  a 
cylinder  i5f  inches  in  diameter. 

The  breaking  strain  of  a  cable  is  12,000  tons.  As 
each  strand  is  3572  feet  long,  about  1200  miles  of  wire 
were  used  in  the  cables. 

These  support  six  parallel  steel  trusses,  on  which 
is  laid  the  roadway,  85  feet  wide,  divided  into  two 
carriage-tracks,  two  tramways,  and  one  footway.  The 
bridge  rises  towards  its  centre  on  a  gradient  of  3J 
per  cent,  the  headway  increasing  from  119  feet  at  the 
towers  to  135  in  mid-channel. 

The  bridge  cost  |i5,ooo,ooo,  tv/o-thirds  of  which 
was  contributed  by  the  Brooklyn  municipality,  and 
one-third  by  that  of  New  York.  It  was  begun  in 
1870  and  opened  to  the  public  in  1883.  Upwards  of 
a  quarter  of  a  million  people  cross  the  bridge  daily ; 
but  so  great  is  the  traffic  between  Manhattan  and 
Long  Island  that  three  more  bridges  are  in  course 
of  construction  across  the  East  River.  These  will, 
when  completed,  be  in  the  first  rank  of  such  struc- 
tures, and  formidable  competitors  in  regard  to  size 
with  the  Brooklyn  Bridge. 

A  traveller  in  the  United  States  is  struck  by  the 
versatility  of  the  American  bridge  -  builder,  whose 
genius  develops   most  happily  towards  the  erection 

130 


°-      :o 


American  Bridges 

of  light,  airy  viaducts  spanning  many  of  the  valleys 
through  which  the  great  network  of  railways  run. 
The  States  have  now  nearly  200,000  miles  of  track 
laid,  and  on  the  average  there  is  one  span  of  metallic 
bridge  for  every  three  miles  of  railway,  giving  a  total 
of  over  63,000.  The  increase  in  weight  of  locomo- 
tives and  rolling-stock  has  led  to  the  renewal  of  many 
of  these  bridges,  by  the  substitution  of  more  substan- 
tial work.  And  the  rapid  extension  of  existing  sys- 
tems constantly  demands  the  manufacture  of  new 
bridges.  Consequently  the  demand  has  driven  manu- 
facturers to  standardise  their  patterns,  and  arrive  at  a 
distinct  understanding  with  the  railway  engineers 
that,  except  in  special  cases,  where  divergence  is  un- 
avoidable, all  bridges  ordered  shall  conform  to  certain 
stereotyped  designs,  which  have  been  decided  upon 
after  much  experimentation. 

The  American  bridge-building  Companies,  thanks 
to  this  scientific  arrangement,  and  the  large  number 
of  orders  that  they  are  called  upon  to  fill,  have  ad- 
vanced the  practice  of  bridge-making  to  a  point  that 
enables  them  to  compete  favourably  with  the  manu- 
facturers of  other  countries.  The  Yankee  railway 
engineer  gives  measurements  to  the  bridge  Company, 
which  by  long  practice  knows  just  what  is  required 
to  meet  a  particular  case,  and  turns  its  mechanics, 
armed  with  all  manner  of  labour-saving  tools,  on  to 
cheaply  made  steel.  In  a  few  weeks  or  months  the 
bridge  is  ready  for  delivery,  the  makers  confident  that 
when  the  pieces  are  assembled  in  situ  they  will  come 

131 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

together  "like  a  clock."  Very  probably  the  Company 
does  the  erecting  as  well,  so  that  after  the  order  is 
given  the  railway  Board's  part  of  the  work  is  confined 
to  handing  over  a  cheque  to  the  proper  amount,  when 
the  bridge  has  been  passed  by  their  engineers. 

On  American  railroads  the  trestle  bridge  is  a  very 
common  object,  often  towering  to  a  giddy  height,  that 
dwarfs  the  giant  locomotives  passing  overhead.  In 
1890  there  were  in  the  States  147,187  wooden  trestle 
spans,  aggregating  2127  miles  of  track.  These,  as 
liable  to  insidious  decay  and  danger  from  fire,  are 
being  replaced  by  steel  structures  as  fast  as  is  possible. 
A  notable  instance  is  the  Portage  Viaduct  on  the  Erie 
Railway,  New  York,  crossing  a  river  234  feet  above 
the  bed.  The  old  viaduct  contained  more  than  a 
million  and  a  half  feet  of  timber,  arranged  in  piers 
formed  of  three  grouped  trestles.  This  was  burned 
in  1875,  and  in  its  stead  now  stands  a  remarkably 
slender-looking  viaduct  of  wrought  iron,  weighing 
but  a  small  fraction  of  the  wooden  structure. 

The  same  railway  boasts  another  remarkable 
viaduct,  the  Kinzua,  2400  feet  long  and  305  feet  high. 
It  was  built  by  Messrs.  Clarke,  Reeves  &  Co.,  in  the 
short  space  of  three  monthsy  without  the  use  of  any 
staging  or  ladders.  The  original  spider-like  supports 
have  recently  been  replaced  by  steel  trestles  of  a  more 
solid  nature,  better  calculated  to  sustain  the  great 
increase  of  rolling-stock  weight. 

Outside  the  country  of  its  birth  the  American 
bridge  is  making  headway.     In  recent  years  British 

132 


American  Bridges 


builders  have  several  times  felt  their  inability  to  com- 
pete with  their  transatlantic  cousins,  when  creation 
and  erection  has  to  be  hurried  through.  To  take 
three  notable  examples.  The  Atbara  Bridge,  seven 
spans  of  147  feet,  was  tendered  for  by  American 
makers  at  ^^lo,  13s.  6d.  per  ton ;  construction  to  take 
six  weeks  and  erection  eight  weeks.  The  nearest 
English  tender  showed  £iSt  15s.  per  ton,  and  twenty- 
six  weeks.  The  Uganda  viaducts,  East  Africa,  also 
fell  to  American  makers,  since  their  price  was  but 
three-fifths  of  the  English  figures.  And  in  the  third 
instance,  that  of  the  Gokteik  Viaduct,  Burma,  their 
price  was  little  more  than  a  half  that  of  British  makers, 
and  the  contract  time  one  year  as  against  three  years. 
These  examples  show  how  unequal  is  the  competition, 
owing  largely  to  the  conservatism  of  English  methods, 
and  the  imbecilities  of  trades-unionism  in  the  British 
Isles.  To  "  keep  his  end  up  "  the  British  manufac- 
turer will  need  to  consign  much  of  his  machinery  to 
the  scrap  heap,  adopt  standard  designs,  and  instil  a 
spirit  of  greater  enterprise  into  his  employes. 

The  Gokteik  Viaduct,  as  the  loftiest  trestle  erection 
in  the  world,  and  among  the  latest  born,  deserves 
special  notice.  It  affords  a  typical  illustration  of 
American  methods. 

The  Burma  railway,  running  from  Rangoon  to 
Mandalay,  a  distance  of  about  400  miles,  has  lately 
been  extended  in  an  easterly  direction  through  the 
Shan  States  to  Lashio,  en  route  to  the  Kunlon  Ferry  on 
the  Salween  River,  following  the  track  over  which  in 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Marco  Polo's  time  the  Chinese  armies  marched  to 
Mandalay. 

Eighty  miles  east  of  the  latter  town  is  the  Gokteik 
Gorge,  with  an  average  depth  of  1300  feet,  eaten  out 
by  the  Chungzoune  River.  It  was  first  proposed  to 
cross  this  formidable  obstacle  by  means  of  short  rack 
railways  on  the  Abt  principle,  which  should  lower 
trains  from  the  high  ground  to  a  point  in  the  gorge 
where  huge  blocks  of  limestone  have  fallen  into  the 
glen  to  form  a  natural  bridge  500  feet  above  the 
river.  A  viaduct  80  feet  high  and  500  feet  long  would 
suffice  for  the  crossing. 

Eventually  it  was  decided  to  flatten  the  grades  of 
the  approaches  to  i  in  40,  and  raise  the  viaduct  level 
to  over  300  feet  above  the  natural  bridge.  It  should 
be  said  of  the  approaches  themselves  that  they  pass 
through  very  rough  country,  where  the  gradients  are 
too  steep  to  admit  of  curves.  By  means  of  switch- 
back reversing  stations  every  two  or  three  miles  the 
train  clambers  slowly  upwards  in  a  zigzag  course,  on 
the  edge  of  awful  precipices.  On  the  eastern  side  of 
the  gorge  the  Hne  still  sticks  to  steep  hillsides,  passes 
through  two  tunnels  and  heavy  cuttings,  and  then 
twists  upwards  by  help  of  three  semi-circular  loops. 

The  viaduct  was  designed  by  Sir  Alexander  Rendel 
&  Co.,  consulting  engineers  to  the  Burma  Railways 
Company.  The  contract  fell  to  the  Pennsylvania 
Steel  Company  of  Steelton.  Our  American  cousins, 
said  Sir  Frederic  Fryer,  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
Burma,  at    the    opening    ceremonies,   obtained    the 

134 


American  Bridges 

contract  because  they  were  able  to  submit  a  far  more 
favourable  tender  than  any  English  firm,  both  in 
point  of  cost  and  of  time. 

Within  four  months  of  the  signing  of  the  contract 
the  first  shipload  of  material  was  despatched  from 
New  York.  Two  months  later  it  arrived  at  Rangoon. 
The  transport  of  4332  tons  of  steel  over  a  line  that 
had  suffered  severely  from  the  15-foot  rainfall  of  the 
wet  season  was  much  delayed ;  but  in  spite  of 
obstacles  erection  commenced  in  October. 

To  facilitate  the  classification  and  separation  of  the 
various  parts  and  the  handling  of  them  by  ignorant 
natives,  each  truss,  girder,  and  column  was  painted  a 
distinctive  colour,  and  the  joints  when  shop-assembled 
were  streaked  with  special  combinations  of  stripes  on 
each  adjacent  piece.  Along  with  the  bridge  material 
came  pneumatic  reamers  and  riveting  hammers, 
hoisting  engines,  derricks,  telephones,  and  last,  but  by 
no  means  least,  thirty-five  American  workmen. 

To  aid  in  the  erection  a  temporary  line  was  laid  in 
zigzags  down  the  side  of  the  gorge ;  this  carried 
material  to  the  foot  of  the  viaduct,  and  also  helped  the 
transport  of  rails,  sleepers,  and  even  two  locomotives 
(in  pieces)  to  the  further  side,  where  35  miles  of  track 
were  laid  during  the  construction  of  the  viaduct. 

From  Steelton  to  Gokteik  is  10,599  miles,  an  almost, 
if  not  quite,  unprecedented  distance  to  send  the  ready- 
made  up  parts  of  so  large  a  structure.  As  fast  as  the 
metal  arrived  at  the  bridge-end  it  was  whipped  out  of 
the  metre-gauge  cars  by  great  steam  derricks,  which 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

handed  them  over  to  smaller  derricks  for  sorting  and 
storage.  At  times  the  press  of  work  was  so  heavy 
that  the  trucks,  immediately  they  were  emptied,  were 
picked  up  by  the  15-ton  crane  and  set  down  on  the 
bank  in  piles,  many  feet  below  the  track,  to  make  way 
for  loaded  cars. 

As  soon  as  sufficient  stuff  had  accumulated  the 
'*  traveller  "  was  erected  at  the  south  end  of  the  bridge. 
This  machine,  which  plays  so  important  a  part  in 
American  bridge  building,  and  is  largely  responsible 
for  the  celerity  of  operations,  is  a  large  framework, 
the  rear  end  of  which  is  anchored  to  a  completed 
section  of  the  structure,  while  the  forward  and  larger 
part  overhangs  and  acts  as  a  crane  through  which 
parts  of  the  next  section  are  lowered  into  place.  The 
Gokteik  traveller  was  24J  feet  wide,  60  feet  high,  and 
219  feet  long,  with  an  unprecedented  overhang  of  165 
feet.  Cars  running  along  the  track  transferred  joists 
and  trusses  to  the  running  tackle,  which  quickly  let 
them  down  and  held  them  in  position  while  the 
riveters,  mostly  natives,  fixed  them.  Some  British 
and  German  sailors  proved  very  useful  on  the  traveller 
and  topmost  points  of  the  rising  towers,  and  set  a 
very  wholesome  example  to  the  350  odd  coolies 
engaged. 

Now  for  a  few  figures  about  the  bridge.  Its  total 
length  from  abutment  to  abutment  is  2260  feet.  For 
281  feet  at  one  end  and  341  at  the  other,  it  is  curved 
to  a  radius  of  800  feet.  The  intermediate  1638  feet 
runs  tangentially  (in  a  straight  line)  at  a  height  vary- 

136 


o  j1 


2  o 


4J  J:i 


-^i  o 


o     _ 


^5 


American  Bridges 

ing  between  130  and  320  feet  above  the  natural  bridge 
and  valley  slopes.  There  are  seventeen  spans,  ten 
120  feet  long,  seven  60  feet  long.  The  fifteen  trestles, 
or  towers,  each  of  four  columns  (with  one  exception), 
are  24J  feet  broad  at  top,  and  widen  towards  the 
bottom  with  a  batter  of  5  in  24.  The  trestle  is  40 
feet  long,  and  is  divided  into  storeys  35  feet  high, 
which  are  braced  diagonally.  At  the  highest  point 
of  the  viaduct,  over  the  natural  bridge,  there  is  a 
double  tower  80  feet  long,  with  six  columns  320  feet 
high.  The  120-foot  girders  are  of  the  lattice  type, 
the  60  and  40-foot  plate-sided,  42J  and  60J  inches 
deep  respectively. 

The  viaduct  will  eventually  carry  a  double  track, 
besides  a  footwalk  for  pedestrians.  At  present  ac- 
commodation for  the  footwalk  and  one  set  of  rails 
only  has  been  provided  ;  the  other  girders  and  trusses 
necessary  for  completion  will  be  added  at  some  future 
time. 

The  men  worked  from  7  to  12  a.m.,  and  1.45  to  6 
P.M.,  except  on  such  days  as  the  furious  monsoon 
blew  through  the  gorge,  or  the  heavens  emptied  them- 
selves in  deluges  of  rain.  Under  favourable  con- 
ditions the  structure  rose  with  astonishing  speed, 
some  of  the  200-foot  towers  going  up  in  three  or 
four  days.  The  double  tower  consumed  a  month, 
as  its  immense  height  rendered  construction  more 
dangerous,  and  consequently  less  easy. 

As  soon  as  a  tower  was  finished,  the  big  girders  for 
the  space  intervening  between  it  and  that  on  which 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

the  traveller  rested  were  swung  out  and  fixed.  Then 
followed  horizontal  stringers,  cross  floor  beams,  ties, 
and  rails.  These  placed,  the  huge  loo-ton  framework 
rolled  forward  to  the  end  of  the  new  span,  and  com- 
manded another  masonry  pier,  whence  a  new  tower 
soon  began  to  rise. 

On  November  i,  1900,  after  nine  months'  labour,  the 
last  of  the  200,000  field  rivets  was  driven,  and  the 
Gokteik  Viaduct  stood  complete.  As  800,000  rivets 
had  already  been  closed  in  the  shops,  the  total  shows 
just  one  million.  It  is  a  striking  testimony  to  the 
thoroughness  of  American  workmanship  that  232,868 
separate  pieces  shipped  from  Steelton  fitted  with 
wonderful  accuracy  when  assembled  in  the  Gorge. 

The  bridge  cost  the  Railway  Company  ^60,125  ; 
and  it  is  considered  that  they  have  received  good 
value  for  their  money.  Englishmen  naturally  regret 
that  so  important  a  contract  should  have  passed 
into  alien  hands ;  but  they  will  not  grudge  the  praise 
due  to  the  pushful  American  for  a  fine  work,  skilfully 
and  quickly  performed. 


138 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  TRANS-SIBERIAN   RAILWAY 

On  the  9th  of  November  1901,  the  following  telegram 
flashed  along  the  wires  from  M.  Witte  to  his  Imperial 
master,  the  Czar  : — 

"On  May  19,  1891,  your  Majesty  at  Vladivostock 
turned  with  your  own  hand  the  first  sod  of  the  Great 
Siberian  Railway.  To-day,  on  the  anniversary  of 
your  accession  to  the  throne,  the  East  Asiatic  Rail- 
way is  completed.  I  venture  to  express  to  your 
Majesty,  from  the  bottom  of  my  heart,  my  loyal 
congratulations  on  this  historic  event.  With  the  lay- 
ing of  the  rails  for  a  distance  of  2400  versts,  from  the 
Transbaikal  territory  to  Vladivostock  and  Port  Arthur, 
our  enterprise  in  Manchuria  is  practically,  though  not 
entirely,  concluded.  Notwithstanding  exceptionally 
difficult  conditions,  and  the  destruction  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  line  last  year,  temporary  traffic  can, 
from  day  to  day,  be  carried  on  along  the  whole 
system.  I  hope  that  within  two  years  hence  all  the 
remaining  work  to  be  done  will  be  completed,  and 
that  the  railway  will  be  opened  for  permanent  regular 
traffic." 

To  which  the  Czar  replied  : — 

"  I  thank  you  sincerely  for  your  joyful  communica- 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

tion.  I  congratulate  you  on  the  completion  within  so 
short  a  time,  and  amid  incredible  difficulties,  of  one  of 
the  greatest  railway  undertakings  in  the  world/' 

Ten  years.  Four  thousand  miles  of  railway  laid 
down.     More  than  a  mile  a  day  :  a  record. 

Europe  and  Western  civilisation  at  the  one  ex- 
tremity, China  and  Eastern  civilisation  at  the  other. 
In  between  the  greatest  of  the  continents,  and  across 
that  continent  the  unbroken  (save  for  a  few  miles) 
band  of  iron. 

A  huge  country — covering  five  million  square  miles 
— of  swamp  and  forest  and  rich  corn  land,  and  moun- 
tains, and  deserts.  A  country  of  intense  cold  and 
great  heat.  A  country  outwardly  wretched,  but  hiding 
in  its  bosom  treasure  incalculable.  A  country  of 
mighty  rivers  flowing  from  the  central  mountains  of 
Asia  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  frozen  solid  half  the  year, 
but  at  certain  seasons  among  the  most  magnificent 
waterways  of  the  world.  A  country  that  was  once 
inhabited  by  a  great  population,  and  then  for  ages 
the  abode  of  a  few  wandering  tribes ;  now  receiving 
fresh  life  from  tens  of  thousands  of  emigrants,  who 
pour  into  it  from  Russia  over  the  iron  way.  A 
country,  in  short,  of  which,  but  a  few  years  ago,  we 
knew  little  whatsoever ;  even  less  that  was  enticing, 
or  creditable,  or  propitious.  We  regarded  it  as  a 
mere  dumping-ground  for  Muscovite  criminals,  chained 
to  the  deadly  labour  of  the  mines,  or  cast  abroad  to 
fare  as  best  they  might  in  the  great  solitudes.  But 
now  it  has  suddenly  leapt  into  notice  as  a  new  Land 

140 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

of  Promise,  to  which  are  turned  the  eager  and  in- 
quiring eyes  of  half  the  world. 

The  story  of  Siberia  begins  with  the  picturesque 
figure  of  Yermack — **  the  Millstone  " — a  boatman  who 
plied  his  trade  on  '*  Little  Mother  Volga/'  as  the 
Russians  fondly  term  their  mightiest  river.  He  fell 
into  a  bad  habit  of  piracy,  and  after  a  series  of 
murders  was  forced  to  flee  for  his  life  to  the  Urals, 
where  he  met  a  family  of  traders  who  were  preparing 
an  expedition  to  Siberia,  the  land  of  the  precious 
sable.  He  entered  their  service  as  trapper,  and  in 
1 58 1  started  for  hunting-grounds  far  away  in  the  heart 
of  North  Asia.  Many  doughty  deeds  were  wrought 
by  Yermack  and  his  followers  in  their  struggle  with 
the  Tartar  tribes,  and  his  victories  over  the  savage 
tribes  brought  him  pardon  and  great  honour.  But 
his  enemies  killed  him  at  last,  and  other  leaders  took 
his  place,  penetrating  further  and  further  westwards 
in  search  of  sable,  suffering  terribly  at  times,  but  still 
pushing  on  the  limits  of  the  Empire  to  Tobolsk, 
Yeneseisk,  Irkutsk.  In  1650  the  gallant  Khabaroff 
conquered  the  territory  of  the  Amur,  and  brought 
the  Russian  standard  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Then 
followed  a  period  of  rest  for  200  years,  at  the  end 
of  which  General  Mouravieff  formally  annexed  the 
district,  which  by  the  Treaty  of  Pekin,  1861,  passed 
into  Muscovite  hands  for  ever. 

The  Russians  now  had  an  important  province  in 
the  Far  East,  washed  by  the  waters  of  a  great  ocean, 
and  traversed  by  a  noble   river.    They  determined 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

that  it  should  be  joined  to  their  European  posses- 
sions by  something  more  commodious  and  more  safe 
than  the  ill-made,  bandit-infested  post-road  that  wound 
its  muddy  or  frozen  length  across  the  steppes  and 
mountains. 

America  had  been  spanned  by  the  iron  way.  Why 
not  Siberia  ?  The  engineering  difficulties  arising  from 
natural  configuration  would  not  be  insuperable. 

Jogging  the  Russian  elbow  was  the  Anglo-Saxon 
engineer.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  scheme 
of  laying  a  ribbon  of  steel  across  the  Asiatic  con- 
tinent first  matured  in  English  and  American  brains. 
As  far  back  as  1857  ^^  American  named  Collins 
offered  to  connect  Irkutsk  to  Chita,  some  hundreds 
of  miles  east  of  Lake  Baikal.  The  following  year 
an  English  syndicate  proposed  a  railway  from  Moscow 
to  the  Sea  of  Japan,  and  undertook  its  construction 
for  a  price.  But  the  Russians  preferred  to  wait  until 
such  time  as  their  own  engineers  could  cope  with  the 
Herculean  task.  For  forty  years  they  planned  and 
surveyed,  gathering  experience  from  the  great  railway 
pushed  eastward  to  Merv  and  Sarmakand.  So  strong 
was  their  faith  in  the  potentialities  of  the  Great  Lone 
Land  of  Asia  as  a  dwelling-place  for  their  teeming 
millions,  that  when  at  last  the  work  was  taken  in  hand 
they  faced  an  enormous  expenditure  despite  the  finan- 
cial straits  in  which  their  country  was  sometimes  in- 
volved. 

The  sum  of  ^£40,000,000  was  voted  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  line.    In  order  to  expedite  its  progress, 

142 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

its  total  length,  from  Cheliabinsk,  on  the  European 
frontier,  to  Vladivostock  on  the  Japan  Sea,  was  divided 
into  the  following  divisions  : — 

1.  Cheliabinsk  to  Obi,  the  Western  Siberian  section, 
800  miles  long. 

2.  Obi  to  Irkutsk,  the  Central  Siberian  section,  1137 
miles. 

3.  Irkutsk  to  Myssovaia  on  the  south-east  shore  of 
Lake  Baikal. 

4.  Myssovaia  to  Stretensk,  the  Trans  Baikal  section, 
686  miles. 

5.  Stretensk  to  Khabarofsk  on  the  Ussuri  River, 
the  Amur  Section^  1326  miles. 

6.  Khabarofsk  to  Vladivostock,  the  Ussurian  Rail- 
way, 478  miles. 

The  first  sod  was  cut  and  the  first  barrow-load 
wheeled  at  Vladivostock  by  the  present  Czar,  who  in 
1891  as  Czarewitch  made  a  grand  tour  of  the  East. 
A  start  was  made  at  the  Cheliabinsk  end  in  the 
following  year.  Ever  since  construction  has  steadily 
progressed  in  the  face  of  physical  and  other  difficulties 
at  a  pace  w^hich  eclipses  the  laying  of  the  great  trunk 
lines  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

In  December  1895  the  Trans-Siberian  was  com- 
pleted to  Omsk ;  in  1896  to  Obi ;  in  1896  to  Irkutsk, 
3371  miles  east  of  Moscow.  Simultaneously  the 
Ussurian  section  had  reached  Khabarofsk,  so  that 
in  seven  years  2503  miles  of  rail  had  been  opened  to 
traffic. 

Stretensk  was  reached  in  July  1900,  and  there  the 
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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

original  scheme  terminated.  To  avoid  carrying  the 
Hne  along  the  Amour  an  arrangement  was  come  to 
with  the  Chinese  Government  in  1896,  by  which  the 
engineers  were  given  rights  to  drive  the  track  across 
North  Manchuria  in  an  almost  straight  line  to  Vladi- 
vostock ;  and  in  1898  the  Russo-Chinese  Bank  (alias 
Russian  Government)  obtained  a  concession  to  make 
a  branch  due  south  from  the  Manchurian  section  to 
Port  Arthur  on  the  Gulf  of  Pechili.  These  sections 
were  pushed  forward  with  the  greatest  possible  speed, 
owing  to  political  events  in  the  Far  East,  which  de- 
manded the  presence  of  large  bodies  of  troops  to 
protect — or  extend — Russian  interests. 

The  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  as  measured  from 
Cheliabinsk,  has  a  length  to  Vladivostock  of  3967 
miles,  and  to  Port  Arthur  of  4242  miles.  If  we  add 
to  this  the  Ussurian  system,  and  the  section  run- 
ning north-east  from  Cheliabinsk  to  Kotlass  on  the 
Northern  Dwina,  we  arrive  at  the  grand  total  of 
nearly  6000  miles,  or  about  double  the  mileage  of 
the  "Canadian-Pacific."  The  railway  in  its  course 
crosses  the  upper  waters  of  the  Obi,  Yenesei,  Lena, 
and  Amur  at  points  where  they  begin  to  be  easily 
navigable  by  vessels  of  considerable  size.  These 
rivers,  each  between  2000  and  3000  miles  long,  ex- 
clusive of  tributaries,  are  being  connected  by  canals, 
which  will  form  the  most  splendid  system  of  water 
communication  in  the  world,  and  act  as  feeders  to 
the  great  railway  at  many  points.  Their  utility  during 
the  construction  of  the  latter  has  been  incalculable. 

144 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

Three  names  are  conspicuous  among  the  many 
connected  with  this  gigantic  undertaking  :  those  of 
the  Czar,  who  is  President  of  the  Railway  Committee ; 
of  M.  Witte,  the  Minister  of  Finance ;  and  of  Prince 
Hilkoff.  Of  these  the  second  was  once  a  station- 
master  on  the  Southern  Russian  railways  :  and  the 
third  worked  under  an  assumed  name  as  a  paid 
employe  on  the  railroads  of  the  United  States,  where, 
in  the  shops  and  elsewhere,  he  gained  the  great  store 
of  practical  knowledge  that  he  is  now  turning  to 
such  good  account. 

The  chorus  of  admiration  evoked  by  the  successful 
termination  of  their  labours  has  been  unanimous. 
Yet  questions  have  been  raised  about  two  points,  on 
which  criticism  has  laid  a  finger.  To  the  outsider 
it  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  the  railway  should 
have  given  a  wide  berth  to  Tobolsk,  the  capital  of 
Western  Siberia,  and  to  Tomsk,  the  capital  of  the 
Central  Provinces.  These  towns  will  be  served^  by 
branch  lines,  but  it  is  open  to  doubt  whether  in  the 
future  their  importance  will  not  decline,  and  new 
towns  situated  on  the  main  track  take  up  the  mantle 
that  has  fallen  from  their  shoulders.  Engineers  of 
other  nations  also  wonder  why  rails  of  such  lightness 
at  i8  lbs.  to  the  foot  have  been  used,  while  20-  to  25-lb. 
rails  are  the  common  practice  in  Russia,  and  28-  to  33- 
Ib.  rails  the  rule  in  Europe  and  other  countries.  We 
must,  however,  remember  that  the  need  for  economy 
was  most  pressing,  and  that  in  using  the  lighter  rails 
the  Committee  have  precedents  in  the  United  States, 

145  K 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

where  in  many  instances  heavy  metals  are  laid  down 
only  when  traffic  has  assumed  certain  proportions. 
Already  sections  are  being  re-laid  with  70-lb.  rails, 
those  they  replace  being  relegated  to  the  sidings 
which  occur  at  frequent  intervals  throughout  the 
system. 

To  gain  an  adequate  idea  of  the  immensity  of  the 
"  Great  Siberian/'  we  should  undoubtedly  travel  over 
it.  A  map,  even  on  a  large  scale,  is  but  a  poor  aid 
to  the  imagination.  Omsk  and  Obi,  to  take  an  in- 
stance, seem  but  a  few  miles  apart  on  paper,  whereas 
a  journey  equal  to  that  from  London  to  Edinburgh 
separates  them.  Place  one  point  of  a  pair  of  com- 
passes at  Cheliabinsk,  and  the  other  at  Berlin.  De- 
scribe a  circle,  and  it  passes  through  Lake  Baikal, 
some  1500  miles  from  the  journey's  end. 

We  will,  nevertheless,  endeavour  to  gain  some  con- 
ception of  what  the  traveller  sees,  by  calling  Aladdin's 
genie  to  our  aid,  and  transporting  ourselves  to  the 
terminal  station  at  Moscow — the  finest  station  of  the 
old  capital — from  which  a  train  is  about  to  start  on 
its  4000-mile  trip. 

A  fashionable  throng  fills  the  waiting-rooms  and 
buffets,  for  the  departure  of  the  Siberian  express  is 
still  a  novelty,  and  attended  by  more  than  the  usual 
amount  of  bustle  and  leave-taking  connected  with 
a  long  journey.  Russians  are  very  proud  of  their 
express,  which  is  indeed  worthy  of  our  close  atten 
tion.  In  it  the  travellers  will  be  confined  for  a 
fortnight  at  least,  so  we  will  see  how  their   comfort 

146 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

has  been  provided  for.  First  we  notice  that  the 
train  is  lit  throughout  by  electric  light,  generated  in 
a  special  compartment  by  a  separate  boiler  and 
engine.  Even  the  head-  and  tail-lights  are  fed  from 
this  source.  One  car  is  fitted  up  as  a  drawing-room, 
with  luxurious  chairs  and  couches,  upholstered  in 
soft  leather,  writing-tables,  a  piano,  maps;  another 
contains  a  restaurant,  where  a  first-class  meal  may 
be  had  at  all  hours  of  the  day,  a  beautifully  fitted 
bathroom  and  an  exercising  machine.  When  you  wish 
to  retire  for  the  night  press  the  electric  bell  button, 
and  a  servant  appears  to  make  up  the  comfortable 
bed  that  is  cunningly  folded  away  during  the  day- 
time. Above  the  bed  are  levers  to  admit  fresh  air 
or  hot  water  to  the  heating  apparatus  as  you  wish. 
The  corridors  that  traverse  the  train  from  end  to  end 
are  provided  with  filter  ventilators  which  keep  out 
the  dust  and  let  in  oxygen.  This  train  de  luxe  is  put 
on  by  the  International  Sleeping  Car  Company ;  a 
guarantee  for  everything  being  all  that  the  heart  of 
traveller  could  wish. 

At  nine  p.m.  the  engine  gives  a  deep  whistle,  and 
draws  out  into  the  night,  and  on  to  the  rolling 
steppes  that  stretch  away  monotonously  east  and 
west  and  south  and  north  for  hundreds  upon  hundreds 
of  miles.  Yet  these  are  some  of  the  greatest  granaries 
of  Europe.  Large  stretches  are  chequered  with  the 
green  of  the  growing  crop,  or  the  gold  of  the  harvest, 
or  the  grey  of  the  stubble.  Giant  straw-stacks  pro- 
claim an  abundant  harvest  past;    threshed   by  the 

147 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

trampling  ponies  of  the  peasant,  and  winnowed  after 
the  manner  of  the  Israelites. 

On,  on,  over  the  steppes  to  Batraki,  where  a 
splendid  bridge,  named  in  honour  of  Alexander  II., 
crosses  the  Volga,  with  thirteen  spans  of  350  feet  each 
— a  total  of  nearly  a  mile.  Then  we  roll  into  Samara, 
a  city  of  90,000  souls,  whence  a  branch  line  runs 
south  to  Orenburg,  with  Tashkend  as  its  ultimate 
objective.  This  region  some  years  ago  was  swept 
by  a  fearful  famine  that  carried  off  the  population 
like  flies,  and  covered  the  steppes  with  their  graves. 

Two  hundred  miles  and  we  reach  Oufa,  a  town  of 
many  churches  and  schools,  hospitals  and  asylums 
for  poor  and  aged,  libraries  and  museums  :  a  town  of 
which  the  poorer  classes  are  sunk  in  deep  ignorance 
like  their  fellows  in  the  rest  of  the  empire.  This  is 
one  of  the  anomalies  of  Russia — utter  illiteracy  hand 
in  hand  with  splendid  equipment  for  learning. 

The  train  has  now  begun  to  taste  the  Urals, 
which  heave  themselves  up  between  the  vast  plain 
of  Russia,  and  the  vaster  Siberian  plain  beyond. 
The  hillsides  bristle  with  broad  expanses  of  fir 
and  birch  forest,  but  the  grey  rock  breaks  through 
at  the  summit.  We  pass  Zuleya,  the  famous  iron 
district  whence  have  come  millions  of  tons  of  metal, 
and  reach  Zlatoust  on  the  summit  of  the  range. 
A  few  miles  further  on  is  the  far-famed  Stone  of 
Parting — one  of  the  most  pathetic  landmarks  ever 
reared  by  the  hand  of  man :  a  simple  triangular 
obelisk,  on  one  side  the  word  *'  Europe,"  on  another 

148 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

''Asia."  How  many  tear-stained,  heart-broken  part- 
ings has  this  dumb  stone  witnessed  !  How  many 
thousands  of  chained  convicts  have  defiled  here, 
urged  by  the  whip  of  Cossack,  torn  from  the  arms 
of  the  friends  that  gaze  sorrowfully  after  them  from 
beyond  the  limit  of  Europe. 

We  are  soon  on  the  down  grade ;  the  scenery 
merges  once  more  into  that  of  the  steppes,  here 
covered  with  high  grass,  birch  trees,  and  small 
swampy  lakes. 

Cheliabinsk.  The  first  station  on  the  Siberian  Line 
proper  :  the  junction  for  the  line  that  runs  north- 
wards through  Ekaterinburg,  Perm,  Viatka,  to  Kotlass 
on  the  Dwina,  from  which  port  goods  are  sea-borne 
to  England.  This  outlet  of  Siberian  trade  will  be 
hugely  developed  in  the  future. 

Before  passing  into  Siberia  let  us  endeavour  to 
form  an  idea  of  that  country,  hitherto  of  darkness, 
now  being  brought  to  the  light  by  the  magic  of  the 
engineer.  Physically,  Siberia  is  divided  into  three 
great  zones  :  the  Tundra,  or  frozen  swamps  of  the 
north,  abode  of  almost  perpetual  frost ;  the  Taiga, 
the  most  wonderful  belt  of  forest  on  this  earth, 
stretching  for  a  thousand  miles  and  more  east  and 
west  between  the  Tundra  and  the  most  valuable  belt 
of  all — the  Steppes,  deeply  covered  by  stoneless,  dark 
earth,  which  with  proper  cultivation  will  become  one 
of  the  greatest  granaries  of  the  world.  Were  Siberia 
but  blest  with  a  warmer  climate,  there  would  be  no 
land  to  compare  with  it,  such  is  its  extent  and  variety. 

149 


Romance   of  Modern  Engineering 

So  intense  is  the  cold,  reaching  to  50  degrees  below 
zero  in  many  places,  that  even  during  summer  the 
earth  is  still  frozen  hard  but  a  few  feet  below  the 
surface,  while  crops  wave  above.  In  winter  the  rivers 
are  not  merely  covered  with  ice  but  actually  frozen  solid. 
On  account  of  the  climatic  conditions  the  engineers 
met  with  many  and  great  hardships  and  difficulties. 
While  constructing  the  Trans-Baikal  section  they 
had  to  blast  the  cuttings  with  dynamite,  as  the  earth 
was  congealed  to  the  consistency  of  rock.  At  the 
stations  water-supply  pipes  had  to  be  laid  in  culverts 
provided  with  a  heating  apparatus,  and  masonry 
could  be  built  only  in  artificially  warmed  shelters. 
The  Ussurian  railway  was  driven  with  the  greatest 
difficulty  through  virgin  forests  of  cedar  and  larch, 
intertwined  with  wild  vines  and  creepers ;  and  when 
made  the  track  often  suffered  severely  from  the  heavy 
floods  that  occurred  during  the  best  working  season. 
Plague  wrought  havoc  among  the  beasts  of  burden, 
and  fever  sv/ept  off  many  of  the  workmen.  In  the 
Kirghiz  steppes,  too,  water  and  cold  taxed  the  utmost 
exertions  of  the  constructors.  No  less  than  30 
miles  of  bridges  cross  the  many  rivers  over  which 
the  railway  passes,  and  for  hundreds  of  miles  the 
track  is  protected  from  flood  only  by  being  raised 
on  a  5 -foot  embankment  above  the  surrounding 
country.  In  the  mountainous  districts  of  the  Altai 
and  Yablonoi  the  engineers  had  to  overcome  diffi- 
culties comparable  to  those  encountered  in  the 
Rockies  and  Andes. 

150 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

To  return  to  Cheliabinsk,  the  quarantine  station 
where  all  emigrants  must  show  a  clean  bill  of  health. 
Our  train  progresses  at  a  leisurely  15  miles  an 
hour  through  the  monotonous  landscape,  which  the 
iron  way  traverses  with  mathematical  straightness 
for  several  leagues  at  a  stretch.  Every  verst  we  see 
the  watchman — an  ex-convict — step  from  his  little 
hut  and  wave  his  flag  to  show  that  all  is  right  on 
his  "length."  Every  twenty  versts  or  so  we  pass  a 
wayside  station — generally  on  a  loop  to  give  a  clear 
passage  to  express  traffic.  As  a  rule  the  stations 
are  well-built  and  clean,  surrounded  by  neat  pali- 
sades; each  with  its  water-tower  and  storehouse, 
earthed  up  to  the  roof  to  keep  out  the  cold.  Now 
and  then  in  the  sidings  we  see  a  third-  or  fourth- 
class  train  full  of  settlers  on  the  way  to  their?  new 
homes,  crowded  like  sheep  into  windowless  trucks. 
Or  perhaps  there  are  windows,  gridded  with  bars, 
from  behind  which  peer  the  faces  of  convicts  bound 
for  the  prisons  and  mines  of  the  interior. 

A  fine  bridge,  2400  feet  long,  leads  us  across  the 
Irtish  into  Omsk,  founded  by  Peter  the  Great.  It 
has  been  prophesied  of  Omsk  that  some  day  it  will 
be  the  chief  town  of  Siberia,  as  the  centre  of  a  great 
system  of  water-ways,  and  near  important  gold-fields 
and  copper  mines,  and  the  even  more  valuable  coal 
deposits  of  Pavlodar,  where  is  said  to  be  a  seam 
joo  feet  thicky  extending  for  miles.  "  Vast  quantities 
of  coke  will  be  produced  here,  shipped  down  the 
Irtish  to  Tiumen,  and  thence  transported  to  the  Urals 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

for  the  ironworks — a  supply  the  importance  of  which 
will  be  appreciated  by  those  who  know  anything 
about  the  iron  industry."^ 

A  railway  has  been  projected  to  run  from  Omsk 
southwards  to  join  the  system  of  Central  Asia,  which 
is  also  being  pushed  forward  vigorously  by  the 
Russian  military  authorities.  This  would  complete 
an  enormous  triangle,  with  corners  at  Samara,  Omsk, 
and  Tashkend. 

Three  hundred  miles  of  track  through  the  great 
corn-growing  steppes  bring  us  to  Obi,  the  end  of 
the  W.  Siberian  section — opened  in  October  1896 — 
which  in  three  years  has  sprung  from  zero  to  a 
population  of  14,000.  Our  next  stopping -place  is 
Taiga,  another  example  of  rapid  growth,  owing  to 
its  being  the  junction  for  Tomsk.  This  latter  town, 
despite  its  fine  University,  electric  light,  and  50,000 
inhabitants,  may  in  a  few  years  be  eclipsed  by  its 
southern  new-born  neighbour. 

The  word  Taiga  tells  us  what  to  expect  in  our 
progress.  The  scenery  changes.  The  steppe  gives 
way  to  mile  after  mile  of  forest,  one  of  the  most 
valuable  assets  of  the  Czar  in  an  age  when  the  world's 
timber  supply  has  sensibly  diminished.  We  drop 
down  into  Krasnoiarsk — the  city  of  the  Red  Rock — 
the  chief  town  of  the  Yenesei  Government,  possessed 
of  the  finest  gardens  in  Siberia,  where  imported  trees 
fare  badly.  Like  Omsk  it  is  situated  on  a  mighty 
river,  the  Yenesei,  which  rises  in  Mongolia  and  takes 
its  broad  course  for  2500  miles  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

1  "All  the  Russias,"  by  Henry  Norman,  M.P.,  p.  155. 

152 


The  Trans-Siberian   Railway 

Ships  come  hither  direct  from  London.  On  the  east 
of  the  town  a  fine  bridge  of  six  spans,  each  span 
474  feet,  clears  the  river.  The  separate  spans  were 
put  together  on  the  bank,  and  launched  into  position 
by  means  of  rollers  and  a  special  crane. 

We  now  rise  to  breast  the  Altai  Mountains,  which 
passed,  we  soon  reach  Irkutsk,  the  terminus  of  the 
Central  Siberian. 

Irkutsk,  on  the  Angara,  the  great  tributary  of  the 
Yenesei,  is  a  curious  mixture  of  new  civilisation  and 
barbarism.  It  owns  a  fine  theatre  that  cost  ;^30,ooo, 
and  a  good  museum  ;  a  telegraph  office,  whence  mes- 
sages may  be  sent  all  over  the  world ;  an  organised 
telephone  service,  stretching  fifty  miles  into  the 
country ;  an  excellently  equipped  fire  service ;  a 
noble  cathedral ;  shops  in  which  you  may  buy  all 
the  luxuries  of  the  West ;  and  a  bank.  It  is  also  one 
of  the  three  centres  to  which  all  gold  mined  in  the 
district  must  be  sent  for  tests  in  the  Government 
laboratories.  Since  its  erection  in  1870  the  labora- 
tory has  passed  ^£60,000,000  worth  of  gold. 

But,  owing  to  the  presence  of  escaped  convicts, 
Irkutsk  has  been  described  as  '^the  one  place  in  the 
Russian  Empire  where  a  man  cannot  feel  safe."  To 
go  alone  in  the  streets  after  dark  is  risky,  as  the 
poHce  cannot  cope  with  the  ruffians  of  the  place. 
Consequently  people  retire  indoors  early,  closely  bar 
their  doors,  and  before  going  to  bed  fire  a  revolver 
out  of  the  window  to  warn  would-be  marauders  and 
housebreakers  what  to  expect. 

153 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

A  short  journey  from  Irkutsk  brings  us  to  the  most 
interesting  spot  on  the  railway — Lake  Baikal.  The 
'^  Holy  Sea,"  as  the  Russians  call  it,  is  one  of  the 
largest  fresh-water  lakes  of  the  world,  yielding  place 
in  size  only  to  Superior,  Huron,  Michigan,  and  Vic- 
toria Nyanza.  It  has  an  area  of  14,500  square  miles, 
and  so  great  is  its  profundity  that,  though  its  surface 
is  1500  feet  above  sea-level,  its  lowest  depths  descend 
several  thousand  feet  below  the  bosom  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  On  all  sides  mountains  gird  it  in  with  frown- 
ing cliffs  and  indent  it  with  eighty  capes.  For  the 
native  it  is  an  object  of  worship  and  superstition, 
since  on  the  island  of  Olkon  dwells  Begdozi,  the  Evil 
Spirit,  who  must  be  appeased  by  sacrifice.  From  the 
north  end  flows  out  the  Chilka,  a  tributary  of  the 
Lena;  from  the  south-west  the  Angara,  the  main 
feeder  of  the  Yenesei. 

The  waters  are  much  vexed  by  storms,  which 
raise  waves  6  or  7  feet  high.  In  November  the  lake 
begins  to  freeze,  and  for  four  and  a  half  months  is 
held  in  the  grip  of  Winter  under  an  ice  coating  9 
feet  thick,  traversed  by  huge  cracks  that  make  sleigh 
traffic  risky  and  uncertain. 

The  lake  is  the  most  serious  obstacle  that  the  en- 
gineers had  to  face  ;  for  the  mountainous  nature  of 
its  setting  renders  the  circuit  of  the  south  end  a  very 
arduous  and  costly  task  that  will  not  be  completed  for 
several  years  to  come.  For  present  purposes  the  gap 
in  the  line  is  served  by  a  train-carrying  steamer — the 
^^//&^/— specially  built  for  forcing  a  passage  through 

154 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

the  ice.  Jetties  supported  on  caissons  project  into  the 
lake  at  the  termini,  separated  by  42  miles  of  water, 
and,  by  means  of  a  platform  adjustable  to  the  varying 
level  of  the  lake,  transfer  the  train  to  the  boat,  where 
it  is  accommodated  on  one  of  the  three  tracks  that 
are  laid  along  the  axis  of  the  middle  deck.  The 
Baikal  is  a  vessel  of  4000  tons,  driven  by  three 
engines  of  1250  horse -power  each,  working  two 
screws  in  the  stern  and  one  in  the  bow.  The  vessel 
was  built  by  Sir  William  Armstrong,  Whitworth,  &  Co. 
at  the  Elswick  Works,  Newcastle-on-Tyne  ;  then  taken 
to  pieces  and  the  parts  delivered  at  St.  Petersburg. 
Waggons  transported  the  pieces — the  heaviest  weigh- 
ing about  20  tons — to  Krasnoiarsk,  and  sleighs  con- 
tinued the  journey  to  Irkutsk,  whence  the  parts  were 
floated  down  the  Angara  to  the  lake.  Russian  work- 
men, superintended  by  English  engineers,  there  assem- 
bled the  parts  and  added  the  boilers,  pumps,  and 
other  machinery. 

The  ice-breaker  is  290  feet  long,  and  of  57-foot 
beam.  Ballast  tanks,  distributed  in  the  double  bot- 
tom, hold  580  tons  of  water.  At  the  water-line  she  is 
protected  by  a  belt  of  steel  plates,  reinforced  with 
heavy  wooden  beams  2  feet  thick.  On  the  upper 
deck  are  spacious  and  comfortable  saloons  for  the 
accommodation  of  150  passengers. 

In  clear  water  the  Baikal  makes  13  to  14  knots 
an  hour.  Ice  3 J  feet  thick  gives  way  to  her. 
The  forward  screw  scoops  out  the  water  ahead,  and 
the  stern  propellers  force  the  vessel  up  on  to  the 

155 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

ice  until  her  weight  breaks  through,  her  advance 
being  3  to  6  miles  an  hour.  A  second  ice-breaker, 
the  Angara^  is  195  feet  long  and  34  in  beam, 
and  of  equal  speed  but  smaller  ice-cleaving  power. 
Like  the  sister  vessel,  she  was  transported  to  the  lake 
in  pieces  and  there  assembled. 

While  on  the  subject  of  ice-breakers — among  the 
most  interesting  of  steam  vessels — we  may  glance  at 
the  Ermack,  built  m  1898  for  service  in  the  Baltic. 
She  has  a  displacement  of  4000  tons ;  length,  305 
feet ;  beam,  71  feet ;  depth,  42J  feet ;  8000  horse- 
power ;  speed,  15  knots.  Her  shape  is  such  that, 
when  pinched  in  ice,  she  tends  to  rise,  after  the 
manner  of  Nansen's  Frani.  On  her  trial  trip  among 
Arctic  floes  she  easily  dealt  with  ice  many  feet  thick  ; 
and  in  the  Baltic  she  has  been  of  the  greatest  use  in 
extracting  frozen-in  vessels,  including  a  warship. 

East  of  Lake  Baikal  the  line  rises  into  the  Yablonoi 
Mountains,  attains  a  maximum  elevation  of  3412  feet, 
and  descends  to  Naidalovo,  the  junction  of  the 
Stretensk  branch  and  the  main  line,  which  reaches  the 
Russian  frontier  at  Magadan.  This  is  a  little-explored 
country,  inhabited  by  Mongols,  of  which  the  chief 
traffic  is  the  tea-carrying  trade.  The  line  is  well  laid 
here  on  heavy  rails,  supported  by  ties  bedded  in 
cement.  Beyond  Kailar,  a  town  of  3000  inhabitants, 
it  crosses  an  elevated  plateau  to  the  great  Kinghan 
range,  and  then  drops  once  more  to  Kharbin  on  the 
Sungari  river,  which  is  the  engineering  headquarters 
of  the  Chinese  railway.    To  this  district  legend  assigns 

156 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

the  birthplace  of  Ghenghis  Khan,  who,  in  his  many 
wars  and  invasions,  is  said  to  have  destroyed  five  or 
six  miUion  human  beings.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century  he  overran  Western  Asia  with  steel 
and  fire  ;  and  to-day  the  same  elements  have  invaded 
his  land  in  turn.  But  the  steel  is  in  rails  and  the 
fire  in  the  furnaces  of  mighty  locomotives. 

At  Kharbin  we  can  take  our  choice  of  Port  Arthur 
or  Vladivostock,  the  former  500,  the  latter  350  miles 
away ;  though  on  the  map  we  appear  almost  at  the 
end  of  our  travels.  Selecting  Port  Arthur,  we  jog 
slowly  along  past  Mukden,  the  largest  town  yet  en- 
countered, with  its  200,000  souls.  A  short  branch  of 
20  miles  links  it  with  the  main-line. 

Dalny,  on  the  Gulf  of  Korea,  is  our  next  halting- 
place,  and  a  unique  city.  For  though  streets  and 
squares  have  been  laid  out,  schools  and  churches 
provided,  electric  Hght  and  cars  installed,  there  is  as 
yet  no  population.  It  is  a  town  quickly  built  for  the 
future  :  one  that  may  become  a  great  port,  thanks 
to  its  situation  on  an  open  harbour  which  never  freezes. 

At  Port  Arthur  we  end  our  roaming  on  the  iron 
way.  Here  we  see  the  ^^  mailed  fist "  of  Russia  in 
the  batteries  bristling  with  cannon  of  all  sizes,  from 
the  12-inch  monster  to  the  4-inch  quick-firer;  in  the 
barracks  to  shelter  large  bodies  of  troops ;  in  the 
torpedo  boats  darting  in  and  out  of  the  harbour 
under  the  shadow  of  the  huge  men-of-war  ;  in  the 
dockyards ;  and  in  the  military  carriage  and  accoutre- 
ments of  every  one  we  meet. 

157 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

A  hundred  miles  north  of  Port  Arthur  the  Pekin 
branch  diverges.  Russia  has  thus  a  hold  on  the  very 
throat  of  China.  To-day  a  regiment  may  be  in 
Moscow;  in  three  weeks'  time  its  officers  may  issue 
their  orders  within  the  walls  of  Pekin.  This,  then, 
is  one  of  the  real  issues  of  the  Siberian  Railway — the 
immense  leverage  that  it  will  give  to  the  Muscovite 
in  any  struggle  with  the  Mongolian.  Over  the  iron 
track  will  roll  all  the  martial  arts  and  engines  of  the 
West.  Is  the  time  ever  coming  when  the  Mongolian 
will  reverse  the  order  of  things  aud  pour  his  countless 
hordes  again  towards  Europe,  now  so  much  nearer 
than  in  the  time  of  great  Ghenghis  ? 

The  Russians  have  spent,  or  will  have  to  spend, 
upwards  of  loo  million  pounds  before  their  great 
line  is  in  first-class  running  order. 

Honour  to  whom  honour  is  due — the  railway  is  a 
magnificent  scheme,  carried  through  with  indomit- 
able perseverance. 

But  will  it  pay  ?  This  is  the  question  asked  by 
Russians,  English,  Germans,  Americans — the  world. 
There  are  those  who  are  ready  to  utter  Cassandra 
prophecies  of  broken  finances,  climatic  deterrents 
to  immigration,  frontier  troubles  with  the  Chinese. 
But  a  far  larger  number  see  in  the  railway  returns  a 
promise  of  a  bright  future.  It  has  been  mentioned 
that  the  line  was  laid  with  light  metals ;  this  because 
the  initial  traffic  was  expected  to  be  but  moderate. 
What  happened  ?  Scarcely  were  the  sections  declared 
open  than  a  rush  set  in.      In   1898  100,000  tons  of 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

goods  accumulated  on  the  western  and  central  lines, 
waiting  months  to  be  forwarded  to  their  destination. 
The  Hne  was  utterly  unable  to  cope  with  the  immense 
body  of  merchandise  thrust  on  to  it.  In  1899  the  saihe 
thing  recurred,  7000  waggons  blocking  the  line.  Con- 
sider these  figures.  In  1896  the  Western  Siberian 
carried  160,000  passengers,  69,000  emigrants,  169,470 
tons  of  merchandise.  In  1897,  236,000  ordinary 
passengers,  78,000  emigrants,  242,000  tons.  In  1898 
the  figures  increase  respectively  to  535,000,  133,000, 
449,000. 

The  Central  Siberian  in  the  first  year  named  carried 
14,700  passengers ;  in  1898,  407,680.  Merchandise 
increased  from  16,350  tons  to  250,816  tons. 

Since  1898  the  augmentation  has  continued.  How 
could  it  be  otherwise  ?  On  the  one  hand  a  new 
country,  richer  in  gold  than  the  Transvaal ;  richer  in 
coal  than  any  other  country ;  richer  in  graphite  than 
Ceylon  and  Cumberland ;  the  greatest  timber-grow- 
ing country ;  a  great  future  granary ;  bountifully 
stocked  with  valuable  fur  animals ;  a  Midas  treasure- 
house  of  iron,  copper,  tin,  lead,  silver,  salt,  precious 
stones;  the  coming  paradise  of  the  hunter  and 
tourist ;  a  present  well-developed  grazing  and  cereal 
country. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  vigorous  Government  bent  on 
making  room  for  the  millions  that  in  European  Russia 
live  in  a  wretched  state  of  semi-starvation  ;  capitalists 
of  all  nations  eager  to  invest  their  wealth  in  enter- 
prises that  may  yield  a  huge  return ;   a  world  that 

159 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

finds  in  the  Trans-Siberian  the  shortest  and  quickest 
route  from  Europe  to  the  Pacific. 

The  Russians  promise  that,  when  their  grand  line  is 
in  full  working  order,  the  journey  from  London  to 
Shanghai  will  be  possible  in  fifteen  to  sixteen  days, 
made  up  as  follows  : — 

London  to  Moscow  .         •         •      3  days 
Moscow  to  Vladivostock   ,        ,     lo    „ 
Vladivostock  to  Shanghai  .         •       3    >, 

This  at  a  cost  of  about  £^0j  food  included.  By  sea 
the  same  journey  costs  at  present  nearly  double  this 
sum,  and  occupies  rather  more  than  double  the 
estimated  time. 

"The  following  will  then  be  the  shortest  route 
between  the  United  States  and  the  Far  East  vid 
Siberia,  New  York,  Havre,  Paris  (London  passengers 
will  go  vid  Dover  and  Ostend  to  Cologne),  Cologne, 
Berlin,  Alexandrovo,  Warsaw,  Moscow,  Tula,  Samara, 
Cheliabinsk,  Irkutsk,  Stretensk,  Mukden,  Port  Arthur  ; 
and  the  total  length  of  this  journey  (excluding  the 
Atlantic)  about  7300  miles,  of  which  297  miles  will  be 
in  France,  99  miles  in  Belgium,  660  miles  in  Germany, 
2310  miles  in  European  Russia,  and  about  4000  miles 
in  Asiatic  Russia.  These  are  the  official  figures."  ^ 
Another  quotation  bears  on  the  same  subject : — 
^'  From  January  1905  a  train  de  luxe^  composed 
solely  of  first-class  carriages,  will  be  run  by  the  com- 
pany from  Warsaw  to  Moscow  and  Port  Arthur ;  the 

^  From  *'  All  the  Russias,"  by  Henry  Norman,  M.P, 
160 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

train  will  be  run  as  many  times  weekly  as  the  Com- 
pany may  deem  advisable.  The  value  of  the  new 
concessions  obtained  by  the  Company  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  its  northern  express,  its  southern 
express,  its  eastern  express,  &c.,  unite  all  the  capitals 
of  Europe  and  Warsaw,  where  passengers  will  find 
Trans-Siberian  carriages.  The  reason  why  a  more 
thoroughly  effective  service  of  international  trains 
de  luxe  will  not  be  commenced  by  the  company  before 
1905  is,  that  it  is  not  until  that  year  that  a  line  running 
round  Lake  Baikal  will  be  completed.  When  this 
line  has  been  opened  for  traffic,  and  when  the  perma- 
nent way  of  the  Trans-Siberian  line  has  also  been 
improved,  an  acceleration  of  the  train  service  will  be 
practicable.  The  Trans-Siberian  line  will  not  only  be 
a  means  of  transit  between  Western  Europe  and 
Japan  and  the  north  of  China,  but  it  will  also  be  the 
shortest  route  between  England  and  Australia.  It  is 
expected,  indeed,  that  it  will  eventually  be  possible 
to  reach  Australia  from  London  vid  Siberia  in 
twenty-two  days."  ^ 

We  may  here  bid  farewell  to  the  ''  Great  Siberian." 
But  before  leaving  the  confines  of  the  Russian  Empire, 
a  word  should  be  said  of  the  great  water  schemes 
which  are  playing,  and  will  play,  as  important  a  part 
in  its  development  as  the  far-reaching  tracks  of  the 
iron  horse. 

^  Engineerings  May  2,  1902. 

161  L 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

For  more  than  a  hundred  years  after  the  time  of 
Peter  the  Great,  Russia  depended  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  her  population  and  commerce  on  the  60,000 
miles  of  natural  waterway  with  which  she  is  endowed. 
Her  physical  configuration  is  such  that  all  her  large 
rivers  rise  in  the  plateau  of  the  Valdai  Hills,  thereby 
affording  the  engineer  a  unique  opportunity  for  using 
his  arts  to  the  immense  advantage  of  the  country  at 
but  a  small  comparative  expense.  A  total  of  1000 
miles  of  canals  unites  the  head  waters  of  the  Volga, 
Don,  Dnieper,  Dwina,  and  Duna,  enabling  boats  to 
pass  from  the  Caspian  to  the  White  Sea,  from  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  Baltic,  and  from  St.  Petersburg  to 
the  foot  of  the  Ural  Mountains. 

With  the  growth  of  the  railway  system  has  come  a 
great  expansion  of  canal  mileage.  It  is  to-day  recog- 
nised that  the  era  of  the  canal  and  canalised  river, 
so  far  from  being  of  the  past,  is  but  entering  its 
period  of  greatest  usefulness  as  the  handmaid  of  the 
metal  track.  The  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  the  Kiel 
Canal,  the  Corinthian  Canal  for  sea-going  vessels, 
the  network  of  smaller  channels  for  smaller  craft  that 
wrinkles  the  face  of  America,  China,  India,  and  Europe, 
are  witness  to  this.  Huge  schemes  are  in  the  air,  on 
paper,  in  progress. 

The  greatest  of  all  these  in  Russia  is  the  Baltic- 
Black  Sea  Ship  Canal,  some  2000  miles  in  length. 
A  syndicate  of  French  and  Belgian  engineers  offered 
to  cut  a  channel  28  feet  deep  from  the  Baltic  to 
Kherson — an  important  port  on  the  Dnieper — of  such 

162 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

amplitude  as  to  float  a  heavy  warship  from  one  end 
to  the  other.  The  price  asked  was  ;^i4o,ooo,ooo,  too 
great  for  the  present  means  of  the  Government, 
though  in  the  future  the  plan  will  probably  be  carried 
out,  and  so  pass  into  the  greatest  of  all  engineering 
feats.  Further  schemes  connect  the  Black  Sea  with 
the  Sea  of  Azov  by  a  canal  through  the  narrow  neck 
joining  the  Crimea  to  the  mainland,  and  the  Black 
Sea  with  the  Caspian,  by  uniting  the  Don  with  the 
Volga.  A  company  has  already  offered  to  effect  the 
connection  for  the  sum  of  ;£8,ooo,ooo.  The  attempt 
was  made  two  hundred  years  ago  by  the  great  Peter, 
and  frustrated  by  the  physical  difficulties.  These  in- 
clude the  shallowness  of  the  Don,  which  at  its  mouth 
is  beset  with  shifting  sand-bars.  Here  the  powerful 
and  effective  steam  dredger  will  have  a  fine  field  open 
to  it  in  clearing  away  these  troubles  to  navigation. 
The  canal  made,  what  possibilities  would  unfold 
themselves  !  The  Volga,  which,  with  its  tributaries, 
numbers  8000  miles,  is  the  home  of  great  steamers 
of  6000  tons  capacity,  huge  floating  tanks  of  Baku 
petroleum,  enormous  timber  rafts — 15,000  come  down 
annually — barges  and  small  vessels  innumerable.  On 
its  banks  are  Astrakan,  Kasan,  Nijni-Novgorod — 
where  ;^40,ooo,ooo  changes  hands  at  the  great  fair  in 
a  few  weeks — and  the  old  capital,  Moscow.  The 
Caspian  is  flanked  on  all  sides  by  districts  that  will 
flourish  by-and-by,  and  lies  on  the  north  of  Persia, 
which  country  would  be  connected  directly  to  the 
Mediterranean   Sea  by  the   proposed  canal,  and  so 

163 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

obtain  a  northern  outlet  to  supplement  the  Persian 
Gulf  on  the  south. 

Nor  do  Russian  plans  stop  at  the  Caspian.  The 
conquerors  of  Turkestan  would  bend  to  their  will  the 
mighty  Oxus,  one  of  the  most  storied  rivers  in  the 
world,  and  divert  it  from  its  present  to  its  ancient 
bed  ;  so  that  instead  of  seeking  the  Aral  Sea,  it  may 
empty  itself  into  the  Caspian.  Inasmuch  as  the  Oxus 
(or  Amu-Daria)  is  in  places  over  a  mile  wide,  has  a 
volume  three  times  that  of  the  Danube,  and  draws  its 
waters  from  the  eternal  snows  of  the  Pamirs,  the 
project  is  one  that  may  be  described  as  sensational. 
The  deflection  would  lower  the  level  of  the  Aral  Sea, 
but  would  open  a  waterway  from  the  whole  world  to 
the  borders  of  Afghanistan,  whither  steamers  already 
ply  on  the  river  itself. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  canal  that 
links  St.  Petersburg  with  the  Urals,  which  oppose  a 
wall  between  the  Russian  and  Siberian  waterways. 
On  the  eastern  side  of  the  range  are  the  Obi  and 
Yenesei,  joined  by  a  canal,  which  renders  navigation 
of  large  boats  possible  from  the  Urals  to  Lake  Baikal, 
and  thence  to  the  very  borders  of  China. 

Some  years  ago  a  syndicate  of  private  individuals 
tried  to  cut  a  canal  through  the  Urals  to  supply  the 
missing  link  between  the  Baltic  and  Mongolia.  When 
a  few  miles  had  been  finished  the  fatherly  Govern- 
ment stepped  in  and  declared  that  such  a  work  was 
for  the  State  to  direct,  and  must  wait  for  its  comple- 
tion until  finances  permit.     There  is  a  prospect  that 

164 


The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

at  no  far  distant  time  we  shall  be  able  to  float  our 
house-boats  on  a  holiday  trip  for  6000  miles  in 
Russian  territory  through  the  hearts  of  two  con- 
tinents. 

These  projects  —  and  feats  —  are  indeed  startling 
proof  of  the  new  leaven  that  is  working  in  that 
wonderful  mass  of  despotism,  militarism,  officialism, 
guiding  grinding  poverty  and  benighted  ignorance 
with  the  tenacious  enthusiasm  and  genius  of  master 
minds.  At  present  the  official  commands,  and  the 
moujik  —  poor  down-trodden  machine  —  obeys;  but 
when  the  leaven  has  leavened  the  whole  lump  down 
to  the  poorest  peasant,  what  will  the  empire  that  has 
the  Trans-Siberian,  Trans-Caspian,  Trans-Caucasian 
railways  to  its  credit,  not  to  mention  a  hundred 
works  of  comparable  difficulty,  have  to  fear  from 
comparison  with  the  mightiest  nations  that  have  ever 
been  ? 


165 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CAIRO    TO    THE    CAPE 

What's  in  a  name  ?  Little  perhaps.  But  unite  a 
couple  of  names  into  a  catchword  that  neatly  ex- 
presses the  political  wishes  of  a  large  body  of  people 
or  a  nation,  and  their  influence  may  be  great. 

*'  Petersburg  to  Pekin  "  has  been  heard  in  Russian 
circles  for  years,  and  lo  !  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway. 

'*  Berlin  to  Bagdad/'  cried  the  German,  and  we 
learn  of  schemes  for  a  railway  from  the  Prussian 
capital  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  We  shall  see  what  will 
happen  ! 

Of  late  years  Englishmen,  too,  have  not  lacked  their 
alliterative  phrase.  ^^  The  Cape  to  Cairo,"  or  ^^  Cairo 
to  the  Cape."  Either  way  it  tickles  the  ear,  and  is 
very  suggestive.  One  sees  in  one's  mind's  eye  the 
locomotive  puffing  through  the  terra  incognita  on 
which  some  little  light  has  been  thrown  by  Living- 
stone, Stanley,  Grant,  Speke,  Grogan,  and  other  in- 
trepid explorers  ;  puffing  steadily  ahead  through 
forest  and  swamp,  mountain  and  lofty  plateau,  beside 
great  lakes  and  over  mighty  rivers,  till  it  emerges  on 
the  sands  of  Egypt,  or  the  more  hospitable  plains  of 
Rhodesia. 

Who  first  conceived  a  Trans-African  railway  it  is 
i66 


Cairo  to  the  Cape 

at  this  time  hard  to  say.  But  we  know  who  first 
brought  the  idea  into  prominence,  and  took  decisive 
steps  towards  its  realisation.  That  man  was  the  great 
empire-builder,  Cecil  Rhodes.  Essentially  a  man  of 
vast  schemes,  he  treasured  the  conception  of  a  metal 
highway  from  one  end  of  Africa  to  the  other,  on 
English  soil  throughout  almost  its  entire  length.  The 
railway  to  Khartoum  grew  from  military  necessity. 
The  Cape  lines  developed  to  keep  pace  with  the  needs 
of  colonisation.  Cecil  Rhodes  added  Rhodesia  to 
the  British  Possessions,  and  strained  every  nerve  to 
traverse  the  new  country  with  a  line  that  should  form 
an  important  link  in  the  great  chain  ;  and,  after  vainly 
seeking  aid  from  the  English  Government,  started  a 
Company  to  carry  through  his  ideas.  Furthermore, 
he  approached  the  German  Emperor,  and  obtained 
concessions — for  a  price — to  carry  his  line  through 
German  territory  to  join  the  system  of  British  Central 
Africa. 

His  untimely  death  has  stilled  the  guiding  hand,  but 
the  work  is  carried  on,  and  doubtless  in  due  time 
the  word  "finis"  will  be  written  to  this  important 
chapter  in  continental  engineering,  and  we  shall  be 
able  to  book  direct  from  Cairo  to  the  Cape  for  the 
grand  tour  of  Central  Africa. 

The  work  is  stupendous,  and  the  difficulties  are 
great — especially  the  political.  Through  unlucky  want 
of  foresight  the  red  portion  of  the  map  of  Africa  is 
severed  by  German  and  Belgian  territory  for  a  dis- 
tance of  some  350  miles.     But  for  that  break  all  would 

167 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

be  plain  sailing,  since,  if  need  bids,  the  engineer  will 
not  be  denied,  as  this  volume  endeavours  to  show. 

Owing  to  this  "  foreign  element "  in  the  path  of  the 
Cape-to-Cairo,  it  cannot  serve  strategical  ends.  Start- 
ing, as  it  does,  from  the  east  end  of  the  Mediterranean, 
it  will  never  be  able  to  compete  against  the  direct  sea- 
route  from  England  to  the  Cape  in  point  of  speed.  Its 
object  is  commercial.  Like  a  gigantic  backbone,  it 
will  carry  the  nerves  of  commercial  life  along  the 
continent,  promote  local  traffic,  and  by  means  of 
branches  to  the  oceans  on  east  and  west,  furnish  out- 
lets for  the  great  future  trade  of  Africa's  wealthiest 
regions — the  central. 

Until  a  railway  comes  it  is  impossible  to  judge  the 
capabilities  of  those  tropical  countries  round  the  great 
lakes.  But  let  the  iron  way  pass  through,  and  then 
what  wealth  of  cattle,  grain,  rubber,  cotton,  sugar, 
spices,  and  minerals  of  all  sorts  may  reward  the  capi- 
talist who  has  risked  his  money  !  Africa  is  a  country 
to  be  conquered  by  the  railway.  Already  the  Uganda 
line  —  of  which  more  presently  —  has  dealt  deadly 
blows  to  the  slave  traffic,  and  given  us  such  a  grip 
on  the  country  as  nothing  else,  not  even  the  constant 
incursions  of  disciplined  troops,  could  give.  The 
same  story  will  soon  be  told  of  the  Cape  to  Cairo 
line. 

The  first  stage  of  the  scheme  was  completed  long 
before  Mr.  Rhodes  had  touched  it  with  the  magic  of 
his  name.  In  1859— Mr.  Rhodes  was  then  six  years 
old— a  line  was  begun  between  Cape  Town  and  Well- 

168 


Cairo  to  the  Cape 


ington,  58  miles  away.  The  discovery  of  diamonds 
in  Griqualand  West,  1867,  caused  a  sudden  extension 
to  Worcester,  through  very  difficult  country,  where 
heavy  gradients  and  sharp  curves  are  the  rule.  The 
terminal  station  quickly  changed  its  name,  Matjes- 
fontein,  Kimberley,  Vryburg,  as  the  rail  passed  over 
the  rolling  Karoo.  In  1885  the  first  train  steamed 
into  Kimberley ;  in  1890  Vryburg  stabled  the  iron  steed. 

Mr.  Rhodes  now  came  in.  In  1893  the  Rhodesia 
Railways  Company  was  formed  for  driving  a  line 
through  Maf eking  to  the  Zambesi.  The  British  South 
Africa  Company  advanced  the  money,  and  Messrs. 
Pauling  &  Co.  undertook  the  contract,  with  Sir 
Charles  Metcalfe  and  Sir  Douglas  Fox  as  engineers. 
The  going  is  easy  through  Bechuanaland,  and  con- 
sequently railhead  advanced  very  fast.  By  June  1895 
Gaberones  was  reached.  On  November  4,  1897,  a 
decorated  locomotive  slid  into  Bulawayo,  1360  miles 
from  Cape  Town. 

The  engineers  have  not  halted  there.  To  the  north- 
east the  line  stretches  a  farther  250  miles  to  Salisbury, 
where  it  joins  the  track  running  south-east  to  Beira 
on  the  Portuguese  coast.  Another  track  runs  north- 
west from  Bulawayo  to  the  Wankie  Coal  Fields  en 
route  to  the  magnificent  Victoria  Falls.  As  Cecil 
Rhodes  wished  it,  the  spray  of  the  Falls  will  soon 
pass  over  the  carriages.  From  the  Zambesi  the  rail 
is  destined  to  pass  through  North-Eastern  Rhodesia, 
rich  in  minerals  and  rubber,  to  the  southern  end  of 
Lake  Tanganyika. 

169 


Romance  of  Modern   Engineering 

From  this  point  the  route  is  a  matter  of  discussion. 
Some  people  urge  making  use  of  the  string  of  great 
lakes,  Tanganyika,  Kivu,  Albert  Edward  Nyanza,  the 
Albert  Nyanza,  joining  them  by  short  lines,  and  so 
attaining  the  Nile,  which  would  float  the  traveller  and 
his  merchandise  down  to  Khartoum,  where  he  may 
take  his  choice  of  river  or  rail. 

Major-General  Sir  Rudolf  von  Slatin,  an  authority 
worth  quoting,  is  entirely  in  favour  of  utilising  the 
Nile  waterway  between  Khartoum  and  Uganda. 
"With  reference  to  the  Cape  to  Cairo  railway,"  he 
says,  "  in  my  opinion  it  will  be  quite  useless,  and  only 
a  waste  of  money,  to  continue  the  railway  south  from 
Khartoum.  .  .  .  From  Khartoum  to  Uganda  is  practi- 
cally impossible  for  a  railway  without  the  expenditure 
of  immense  capital,  and  in  any  case  during  the  rains 
there  would  be  so  many  interruptions  that  a  line 
would  be  practically  useless.  As  you  have  a  water- 
way in  this  direction  and  a  river  navigable  the  whole 
year,  it  would  seem  a  waste  of  time  and  money  to 
build  a  railway  which  could  never  be  relied  on." 

As  the  line  will  serve  commercial  purposes,  it  is 
therefore  probable  that  for  many  years  it  will 
terminate  at  or  near  the  Albert  Nyanza. 

About  the  middle  section — i.e.  from  the  south  end 
of  Tanganyika  to  Albert  Nyanza — Mr.  E.  S.  Grogan, 
the  first  white  man  to  traverse  Africa  from  south  to 
north,  has  made  the  following  suggestions. 

To  utilise  Tanganyika  from  Kituta  to  Usambara 
near  the  north  end.     From  that  point  a  light  railway 

170 


Cairo  to  the  Cape 

could  be  laid  along  the  flat  valley  of  the  river  Rusisi  to 
the  south  end  of  Lake  Kivu.  Then  steamer  again  for 
60  miles  to  the  north-east  corner  of  the  lake,  whence 
another  short  line  would  pass  through  the  mountains, 
and  drop  gradually  to  Lake  Albert  Edward,  which  it 
would  skirt  on  the  right  bank,  until  the  main  stream 
of  the  Nile  is  reached.  Except  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Mount  Ruwenzori  the  country  does  not  afford  any 
great  physical  obstacles  to  the  engineers,  whose  dead- 
liest foe  probably  would  be  the  fevers  that  breed  so 
freely  in  the  swamps  of  Central  Africa. 

The  first  feeders  of  the  main  line  will,  on  account  of 
geographical  conditions,  run  in  from  the  east  coast. 
Already  we  have  the  Durban-Pretoria  and  Delagoa- 
Bay- Pretoria  railways  stretching  towards  the  back- 
bone. Farther  north  is  the  Beira-Salisbury  connec- 
tion. North  of  that  again  is  projected  a  German  line 
from  Dar  es  Salaam  to  Ujiji  on  Tanganyika,  with  a 
branch  to  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  to  which  English 
engineers  have  driven  the  now  famous  Uganda  Rail- 
way. A  short  track  from  Berber  to  Suakin  would 
place  the  Cape-to-Cairo  in  communication  with  the 
Red  Sea. 

The  Uganda  Railway,  running  from  the  island  of 
Mombasa  to  Port  Florence  on  the  Victoria  Nyanza, 
is  580  miles  long — that  is,  it  covers  a  distance  50  miles 
greater  than  the  journey  from  London  to  Aberdeen. 

Surveys  for  the  line  were  begun  in  1891  and 
completed  by  1895.  The  following  year  operations 
commenced  at  Mombasa,  which  was  connected  with 

171 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

the  mainland  by  a  temporary  bridge  while  the  fine 
Salisbury  Bridge  was  in  course  of  construction. 

The  road  passes  through  hilly  country  that  rises 
steadily  for  the  first  360  miles,  with  occasional  dips,  to 
an  elevation  of  7800  feet.  It  then  sinks  nearly  2000 
feet  into  the  Great  Rift  Valley,  preparatory  to  a 
precipitous  climb  to  Mau,  8300  feet  above  sea-level. 
Then  follows  a  continuous  drop  of  4500  feet  to  the 
lake. 

The  engineers  were  much  troubled  with  labour 
questions.  The  country  is  sparsely  inhabited,  and 
the  natives  are  among  the  laziest  folk  on  the  earth. 
Mr.  Grogan  says  in  this  connection  :  ''The  natives  of 
the  country,  alas  !  were  skin  and  bone.  A  two  years' 
drought  had  driven  them  through  starvation  to  death 
by  the  thousand.  I  saw  grown  men  and  women 
scrambling  for  grains  of  rice  that  had  accumulated  on 
the  filthy  ground  sheets  or  bare  floor  of  the  Indians' 
tents,  and  women  carrying  huge  planks  by  a  strap 
round  the  forehead  in  order  to  earn  a  handful  of  food 
from  the  two  hulking  coolies  whose  work  it  was  .  .  . 
all  because  you  can't  get  a  day's  work  out  of  an 
African  buck  nigger  even  though  he  be  starving."  ^ 

As  a  result  Indians  had  to  be  imported  in  large 
numbers.  An  army  of  20,000  workers  had  to  be  fed, 
provided  with  water  in  an  almost  waterless  country, 
and  protected  by  stockades  against  man-eating  lions 
which    committed    severe    depredations    among   the 

1  *'From  the  Cape  to  Cairo,"  p.  198, 
172 


Cairo  to  the  Cape 


working  parties.  The  presence  of  the  dreaded  tsetse 
fly,  fatal  to  cattle  and  beasts  of  burden,  necessitated 
the  transport  of  material  from  railhead  to  advanced 
parties  on  men's  backs — a  very  laborious  and  tedious 
process.  Add  to  this  the  prevalence  of  fevers, 
"jiggers,"  ulcers,  and  sores  resulting  from  contact 
with  the  poisonous  thornbush  through  which  the 
pioneers  had  to  cut  their  way  for  miles  at  a  stretch, 
and  risings  and  rebellions  among  the  natives. 

There  is  but  one  tunnel  on  the  line,  at  a  point  about 
50  miles  from  the  lake  terminus.  But  there  are  many 
bridges,  some  half  a  mile  long  and  over  100  feet  high. 
Gradients  are  heavy,  especially  in  the  Rift  Valley, 
where  some  very  clever  engineering  has  carried  the 
rail  down  the  precipitous  escarpment. 

The  chief  stations  are  Mombasa,  Kilindini,  Voi  (100 
miles  from  Mombasa),  Makindo  (205),  Nyrobi  (345), 
and  Nakuro  (450).  Nyrobi  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
line,  with  workshops,  engine-sheds,  and  administrative 
offices. 

On  December  19,  1901,  the  first  locomotive  reached 
the  lake,  which  is  now  2J  days'  journey  from  the 
coast.  Over  the  old  caravan  route  the  time  was  70 
days.  The  railway,  which  is  of  metre  gauge,  laid  on 
iron  and  wooden  sleepers,  cost  the  Government 
;£5,2o6,ooo.  In  1901  the  rolling  stock  included  69 
locomotives,  150  passenger  cars,  and  850  goods 
waggons. 

Now  that  the  road  is  completed,  a  great  opening  up 
of  trade  may  be  expected.    Two  steamers  of  600  tons 

173 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

displacement  are  being  conveyed  in  pieces  to  the  lake, 
where  they  will  be  assembled,  and  initiate  a  regular 
service.  The  Victoria  Nyanza,  with  its  500  odd 
mile^  of  coastline,  taps  a  huge  area,  the  trade  of  which 
will  naturally  gravitate  to  the  Uganda  Railway,  and 
make  it,  as  first  in  the  field,  the  established  trade 
route.  It  is  therefore  expected  that  after  the  year 
1910  the  railway  will  begin  to  give  substantial  returns 
in  addition  to  paying  its  own  way.  Of  its  beneficial 
effect  on  the  country  there  can  be  no  possible  doubt. 
Sir  Harry  Johnstone  has  instanced  as  a  tangible  proof 
of  the  pacific  influence  of  the  iron  way,  the  fact  that 
the  erstwhile  cattle-raiding,  man-hunting  Masai  has 
consented  to  lay  aside  his  murderous  assegai  for  the 
navvy's  pick. 

The  southern  section  (Cape  to  Bulawayo)  is  ex- 
tremely up-to-date.  After  what  we  have  read  of 
railway  travelling  in  South  Africa  during  the  late 
war,  we  may  be  inclined  to  regard  it  as  a  thing  to  be 
avoided.  In  cattle  trucks  it  is  so,  no  doubt.  But  if 
you  choose  to  lay  down  fifteen  guineas  on  the  coun- 
ter, you  may  travel  from  Cape  Town  to  Bulawayo  in 
a  train  that  will  compare  favourably  with  anything  to 
be  found  in  England  or  on  the  Continent.  The  train 
de  luxe  contains  dining  and  sleeping  cars,  lounges, 
kitchens,  pantries,  lavatories,  and  bathrooms ;  in  fact, 
all  the  conveniences  of  modern  life. 

Already  an  arrangement  has  been  made  with  the 
Cape  Government  Railways  under  which  circular 
tourist  tickets,  available  for  one  month,  will  be  issued 

174 


■>  ^ 


Cairo  to  the  Cape 


for  all  stations  on  the  Cape  and  Rhodesian  railways. 
When  the  tourist  begins  to  be  considered,  a  country 
is  pretty  well  advanced.  The  sportsman,  too,  will  be 
provided  for.  He  will  be  able  to  hire  saloon  carriages 
by  the  month,  and  travel  whithersoever  he  wishes  on 
the  South  African  railway  systems,  keeping  the  saloon 
on  a  siding  to  act  as  headquarters  for  a  shooting  trip. 
For  the  sightseer  the  great  magnet  will  be  the  Victoria 
Falls,  eclipsing  Niagara  in  their  grandeur.  The  water- 
power  running  to  waste  will  be  harnessed  in  part 
before  many  years  are  out,  and  then  we  may  expect 
to  see  an  industrial  town  rising  on  the  banks  of  the 
Zambesi,  in  which  will  be  treated  the  copper,  lead, 
zinc,  and  iron  known  to  exist  in  vast  deposits  in  Central 
Rhodesia.  "Victoria  Falls"  will  thus  become  one  of 
the  great  stations  on  the  Cape-to-Cairo  line,  and  the 
centre  of  a  civilisation  eclipsing  that  which  has  left 
behind  it  many  imposing  ruins  at  Zambybwe  and 
elsewhere. 

Side  by  side  with  the  railway,  but  not  entirely  on 
the  same  route,  another  gigantic  enterprise  is  being 
steadily  pushed  forward — the  Trans-Continental  Tele- 
graph. Work  of  this  kind  is  not  heralded  by  such  a 
flourish  of  trumpets  as  is  blown  over  plate-laying,  but 
its  difficulties  are  often  comparable  and,  in  many  cases, 
even  greater. 

Here  again  the  genius  of  Cecil  Rhodes  has  been  the 
mainspring  of  action.  He  obtained  the  necessary 
permission  from  the  German  authorities  to  push  the 
slim  wire   through   their  territory.      The  price  was 

175 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

heavy — a  separate  line  at  his  own  cost  between 
Rhodesia  and  British  East  Africa,  to  be  owned  and 
used  exclusively  by  the  German  Government. 

The  Rhodes  section  of  the  telegraph  extends  from 
Bulawayo  to  Ujiji  on  Lake  Tanganyika,  the  present 
terminus.  The  following  particulars  of  this  great 
scheme  have  been  kindly  supplied  to  the  writer  by 
Mr.  J.  F.  Jones,  Joint  Manager  and  Secretary  of  the 
British  South  Africa  Company. 

At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  shareholders  of  the 
British  South  Africa  Company  in  November  1892, 
Mr.  Rhodes  propounded  his  scheme  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  telegraph  line  to  Egypt,  and  asked  for 
assistance  to  enable  him  to  extend  the  Company's 
existing  Hne  from  its  terminus  at  Salisbury  to  Zomba 
in  Nyassaland,  and  thence  via  the  Lakes  Nyassa  and 
Tanganyika,  the  ultimate  object  being  to  connect 
with  the  terminus  of  the  Egyptian  Government 
system  of  telegraphs,  thus  placing  Cape  Town  in 
through  communication  with  Cairo  and  thence  to 
England.  Steps  were  at  once  taken  towards  the 
accomplishment  of  this  design,  and  the  African  Trans- 
Continental  Company,  Limited,  was  incorporated  on 
December  27,  1892. 

It  was  decided  to  build  the  Zomba-Salisbury  por- 
tion from  both  ends  simultaneously,  meeting  at  Tete 
in  Portuguese  territory.  The  Mashona  rising  of  1896 
stopped  the  work  on  the  Salisbury-Tete  section,  and 
when  the  country  was  pacified,  it  was  found  that  the 
Une   had   been    practically   destroyed.     Mr.    Rhodes, 

176 


Cairo  to  the  Cape 


therefore  decided  to  abandon  the  old  route,  and 
a  much  better  and  healthier  one  was  discovered  to 
Tete  from  Umtali  (on  the  Salisbury-Beira  line), 
passing  over  the  high  plateau  of  North-East  Mashona- 
land.  Whilst  this  line  was  being  constructed  the 
line  north  of  Tete  was  steadily  progressing  towards 
Abercorn  at  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Tanganyika, 
which  was  reached  at  the  end  of  1899. 

It  was  found  that  the  most  practicable  route  thence 
to  the  head  of  the  lakes  was  on  the  eastern  shore  in 
German  East  Africa,  and  an  agreement  (referred  to 
above)  was  entered  into  between  Mr.  Rhodes  and  the 
German  Government,  dated  March  15,  1899,  by  which 
the  African  Trans-Continental  Telegraph  Company 
was  permitted  to  construct  the  line  through  German 
territory. 

Notwithstanding  the  difficult  nature  of  the  country 
to  be  traversed,  the  great  scarcity  of  labour,  and  in 
many  parts  of  water,  the  work  was  proceeded  with 
as  fast  as  possible,  and  during  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember 1900,  the  line  from  Abercorn  to  Kituta  (at  the 
south  end  of  Lake  Tanganyika)  was  constructed  and 
opened,  and  in  the  same  month  the  construction  from 
Kituta  into  German  territory  was  commenced,  the 
first  German  telegraph  office  being  opened  at  Kasanga 
(now  called  Bismarkburg),  a  distance  of  22J  miles 
from  Kituta. 

The  extension  of  the  line  has  been  continued  to 
Ujiji,  a  distance  of  300  miles  from  Bismarkburg. 
Beyond  this  point   construction  is  for  the  moment 

177  M 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

suspended,  awaiting  developments  in  the  Marconi 
system  of  wireless  telegraphy,  which  it  may  be  ex- 
pedient to  adopt  for  certain  portions  of  the  route 
between  Ujiji  and  Entebbe,  owing  to  the  very  great 
constructional  difficulties  presented  by  the  nature  of 
the  country  lying  to  the  north  and  east  of  Ujiji. 

In  July  1898  the  British  South  Africa  Company 
took  over  the  maintenance  and  working  of  the  African 
Trans-Continental  Telegraph  Line,  under  an  agree- 
ment with  the  Company,  and  the  whole  line  is  now 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Postmaster-General  of 
South  Rhodesia. 

It  is  possible  to  send  telegrams  to  any  point  within 
Rhodesia  at  the  rate  of  id.  a  word ;  to  the  Cape 
Colony,  Natal,  and  Transvaal  for  2d.  a  word;  to 
European  countries  at  2S.  8d.  a  word. 

At  present  4000  out  of  the  5600  miles  between  the 
Cape  and  Cairo  have  been  covered  by  the  wire.  Of 
the  difficulties  encountered,  Mr.  E.  S.  Grogan  says — 

'^The  work  of  construction  (he  is  here  speaking 
particularly  of  the  west  coast  of  Lake  Nyassa),  has  been 
attended  with  the  greatest  possible  difficulties  from  the 
precipitous  and  densely  wooded  nature  of  the  country, 
and  the  pestilential  climate.  These  had,  however,  by 
superhuman  efforts  been  overcome  in  the  stipulated 
time  by  the  handful  of  men  engaged  on  the  work.  A 
wide  track,  straight  as  an  arrow,  up  hill,  down  dale, 
across  abyssmal  chasms,  and  through  swamps,  had 
been  cleared,  and  iron  posts  set  in  iron  shoes  sup- 
ported the  wire.     No  one  at  home  can  realise  the 

178 


Cairo  to  the  Cape 


stupendous  difficulties  that  have  been  overcome.  But 
I  from  observation  know,  and  take  off  my  hat  in  awed 
admiration  of  that  gallant  band  who,  quietly,  relent- 
lessly, and  without  a  murmur,  have  accomplished  the 
seemingly  impossible.  It  stands  out  in  bold  relief  as  a 
colossal  monument  of  what  the  Anglo-Saxon  can  do."^ 
The  general  routine  of  construction  was  to  send 
ahead  of  the  main  body  a  small  party  of  surveyors 
to  decide  the  path  of  the  wires.  Behind  them,  at 
a  distance  of  anything  up  to  200  miles,  followed  an 
army  of  natives,  marshalled  by  English  engineers, 
who  cut  a  broad  path  through  jungle  and  forest, 
in  the  centre  of  which  the  posts  are  placed.  Each 
pole  is  20  feet  long  and  in  two  sections,  the  top, 
of  wrought  iron,  15  feet  4  inches,  gradually  tapering, 
the  lower  a  cast-iron  driving  base,  5  feet  long,  into 
which  the  top  section  fits.  The  poles  are  fixed  in 
the  ground  by  means  of  an  iron  plate  and  spike, 
and  steadied  by  stay  wires.  It  would,  of  course, 
be  useless  to  employ  wood  or  any  material  not  im- 
pervious to  the  attacks  of  the  white  ant.  The  trans- 
port of  the  poles,  which  weigh  160  lbs.  each,  was  a 
most  difficult  matter.  Along  with  wire  and  other 
material  they  were  shipped  up  the  rivers  in  shallow 
draught  boats  to  the  farthest  available  point,  and  then 
carried  by  porters  or  beasts  of  burden  to  the  scene 
of  operations.  In  connection  with  the  Tanganyika 
section,  vessels  were  built  in  England  and  transferred 
to  the  lake  in  pieces,  re-assembled,  and  loaded  with 

*  "  The  Cape  to  Cairo,"  p.  72. 
179    . 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

material  to  accompany  the  march  of  the  pioneers  on 
the  neighbouring  shore. 

In  spite  of  the  breadth  of  the  clearings  the  rate  of 
vegetable  growth  requires  constant  vigilance  on  the 
part  of  the  line-tenders  to  prevent  ^' short  circuits." 
A  regular  system  of  patroUing  has  to  be  employed  to 
combat  the  rank  vegetation.  In  the  section  from 
Chiromo  to  Chikwawa  on  the  Shire  River,  through 
the  track  of  swampy  ground  known  as  the  "Elephant's 
Marsh/'  it  is  practically  impossible  to  keep  the  grass 
in  order,  owing  to  the  number  of  crocodiles  with 
which  the  swamp  is  infested.  The  result  is  a  great 
loss  of  current. 

Elephants  cause  considerable  trouble  by  selecting 
the  poles  as  their  rubbing-posts.  When  a  4-ton  animal 
leans  against  a  frail  iron  post  and  begins  to  sway 
backwards  and  forwards,  something  is  bound  to  go 
in  spite  of  the  wire  stays.  The  line  is  now  so  well 
guarded,  however,  that  any  failure  is  quickly  remedied. 

Curiously  enough,  very  little  annoyance  has  been 
given  by  the  natives.  At  first,  indeed,  some  of  the 
tribes  were  inclined  to  pull  down  the  wires,  but  a 
few  powerful  electric  shocks  inspired  them  with  due 
respect  for  the  iron  thread,  which  has  now  become 
'fetish,"  even  in  districts  where  wire  is  the  chief 
form  of  currency,  and  therefore  an  object  of  general 
desire. 

One  of  the  most  serious  blows  to  the  expedition 
was  the  appearance  of  smallpox,  which  rages  with 
great  severity  among  the  blacks.     Panic-stricken,  the 

180 


Cairo  to  the  Cape 


porters  threw  down  their  loads  by  the  wayside  and 
made  for  the  bush  in  hundreds. 

The  rate  of  construction  varied  greatly  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  country.  In  some  parts  the  line 
advanced  20  miles  a  week,  but  in  others,  especially 
along  the  shore  of  Lake  Nyassa,  where  the  engineers 
encountered  a  series  of  marshes  and  dense  forests, 
progress  was  very  slow.  In  the  same  region,  owing 
to  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country,  abnor- 
mally long  lengths  of  wire  have  to  be  used  to  span 
the  deep  ravines. 

For  the  present,  construction  is  at  a  standstill. 
Whether  the  wires  will  continue  their  northw^ard 
march  to  meet  the  Egyptian  line  depends  on  the 
success  of  Mr.  Marconi's  system.  The  distance  to 
be  traversed  is  great — 1600  miles — and  to  flash  mess- 
ages plant  of  great  power  will  be  required,  the  main- 
tenance of  which  may  prove  somewhat  troublesome 
in  the  heart  of  Africa.  Were  Mr.  Rhodes  alive  he 
would  doubtless  urge  an  all-metal  connection  for 
political  reasons  ;  just  as  he  championed  an  unbroken 
railway  track  from  Cairo  to  the  Cape.  The  English 
are  essentially  a  practical  nation,  and  both  these  great 
schemes  will  certainly  be  completed  in  the  most 
practical  manner,  leaving  sentiment  on  one  side. 


181 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE  LOFTIEST  RAILWAY   IN   THE  WORLD 

*'  Change  here  for  Mont  Blanc  !  " 

What  a  ridiculous  thing,  the  reader  will  say,  to 
talk  of  a  railway  journey  to  the  summit  of  Europe. 
Well,  Mont  Blanc  is  inviolate  at  present;  it  is  still 
a  feat  to  reach  the  snowy  top,  and  to  win  a  head 
guide's  diploma  to  show  that  you  have  attained  the 
mountaineer's  desire. 

But  engineers  are  very  persistent,  and,  acting  on 
the  principle  that  where  man  can  make  a  path  he 
can  make  a  railway,  have  attacked  Snowdon,  and 
the  Righi,  and  Pilatus,  and  the  Jungfrau  herself.  It 
seems  a  daring  thing  to  attempt  a  steel  track  to  the 
topmost  peak  of  one  of  the  loftiest  Alps,  over  which 
the  tourist  shall  roll  in  comfort  to  altitudes  hitherto 
attainable  only  by  sweat  of  brow  and  the  exercise  of 
iron  nerves. 

The  days  are  fast  passing  when  the  ascent  of  the 
Jungfrau  will  be  considered  an  achievement.  For 
electric  drills  are  busy  at  work  in  the  mountain  side 
scooping  out  a  tunnel  through  the  calcareous  rock. 
The  Jungfrau  line,  starting  from  Scheidegg,  will  bore 
its  devious  way  upwards  for  8  miles,  until  a  point 
200  feet   below  the  summit   is  reached.     The  track 

182 


The  Loftiest  Railway  in  the  World 

will  be  almost  entirely  in  tunnel.  The  motive  force, 
electricity,  is  derived  from  two  stations  at  Lauter- 
brunnen  and  Grindelwald,  where  water  turbines, 
driven  by  mountain  streams,  yield  an  aggregate  of 
nearly  5000  horse-power.  Urged  by  powerful  cur- 
rents the  cars  will  slowly  climb,  unseen,  to  the  limit 
platform,  14,000  feet  above  sea  level.  An  electric  lift 
will  transport  the  tourist  to  the  very  summit,  which 
commands  one  of  the  finest  views  in  the  world,  in- 
cluding the  Finsteraarhorn,  the  Weisshorn,  Monte 
Rosa,  &c.  That  science  may  wait  upon  pleasure, 
an  observatory  will  be  erected  for  meteorological  ends 
on  the  crest  of  the  Jungfrau. 

This  is  the  latter-day  style  of  mountaineering.  The 
Mark  Twain  or  Tartarin  of  another  generation  will 
be  mainly  occupied  in  chronicling  a  series  of  rail- 
way journeys. 

How  many  people  know  where  to  look  for  the 
highest  railway  in  the  world  ? 

Not  in  Switzerland,  nor  in  the  Himalayas,  where 
the  Sibi  and  Darjeeling  lines  push  far  up  towards 
the  clouds ;  nor  in  the  Rockies,  crossed  by  several 
marvels  of  engineering;  nor  yet  in  Mexico,  a  land 
of  great  elevations.  No;  go  to  Peru  !  There  you  will 
find  the  loftiest  lines  hitherto  laid  by  the  engineer. 

Peru  has  two  chief  tracks.  One  from  Callao  on 
the  coast  to  Oroya  on  the  Montana  or  eastern  slope 
of  the  Andes  ;  a  second  from  Mollendo  on  the  Pacific 
to  Lake  Titicaca,  throwing  off  a  branch  northwards 
to  S.  Rosa,  on  the  road  to  Cuzco. 

183 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Both  these  lines  pass  right  over  the  Andes.  The 
former  has  a  total  length  of  140  miles,  the  latter  of 
420  miles.  Both  are  remarkable  engineering  feats, 
but  if  a  comparison  be  instituted,  the  Oroya-Lima 
line  easily  bears  off  the  palm.  In  about  100  miles 
it  rises  from  sea-level  to  an  altitude  of  15,665  feet, 
or  to  about  that  of  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc.  In  a 
few  hours  the  traveller  is  transported  from  tropical 
surroundings  to  the  neighbourhood  of  eternal  snow, 
where  for  a  time  he  falls  a  prey  to  the  soroche^  or 
mountain  sickness. 

The  line  is  the  first  section  of  a  Trans-Continental 
route,  partly  by  rail,  partly  by  water  over  the  tribu- 
taries and  main  stream  of  the  Amazon.  Between 
1868  and  1872  the  Peruvians  discovered  a  great  store 
of  wealth  in  the  enormous  deposits  of  guano  on  the 
islands  off  the  coast.  Huge  fortunes  were  made. 
Money  was  eagerly  borrowed  by  Peru,  and  lent  by 
England  and  other  countries,  the  greater  part  of 
which  loans  were  spent  in  a  lavish,  almost  reckless, 
manner  upon  harbours,  piers,  and  railways.  Fancy 
prices  were  paid  for  work,  costly  pi.xS  and  docks 
were  constructed,  and  railways  were  projected  and 
carried  out  through  mountainous  and  desert  regions, 
the  plans  of  which  might  well  have  struck  dismay  into 
the  most  courageous  engineers  and  investors. 

The  construction  of  the  Oroya  line  was  commenced 
in  1870  by  Mr.  Henry  Meiggs,  the  well-known  American 
railway  contractor.  From  Callao  to  Oroya  as  the 
crow  flies  the  distance  is  only  80  miles,  but  the  line 

184 


Coasting  by  Hand-car  on  the  Lima-Oroya  Railway,  Pent. 
The  experience  of  rushing  loo  miles  downhill  at  a  stretch  is  possible  on  no  other  track, 

iTo  face  p-  184. 


The  Loftiest  Railway  in  the  World 

has  a  length  of  140  miles  owing  to  the  multitudinous 
twistings  and  turnings,  zigzags  and  tourniquets  that 
distinguish  its  course. 

To  its  highest  point — the  Galera  Tunnel — the  rail- 
way follows  the  river  Rimac,  which  it  crosses  re- 
peatedly. So  steep  and  difficult  is  the  country  that 
in  places  the  line  runs  in  galleries  cut  in  the  face  of 
precipices  by  men  lowered  from  above  in  ^'boat- 
swain's chairs/'  sailors  proving  especially  useful. 

The  rail  crawls  up  the  side  of  most  awful  chasms, 
every  now  and  then  plunging  into  the  rocks,  to 
emerge  perhaps  on  to  a  bridge  that  spans  the  foam- 
ing Rimac,  roaring  seaward  hundreds  of  feet  below. 
Two  of  the  most  notable  crossings  are  those  of  Ver- 
rugas and  the  Infernillo.  The  first  is  cleared  by  a 
bridge  575  feet  long,  in  four  spans,  and  is  supported 
by  iron  towers,  the  central  one  of  which  is  252  feet 
in  height.  This  viaduct,  which  contains  662J  tons 
of  iron,  was  put  together  by  runaway  sailors  accus- 
tomed to  work  at  considerable  heights.  A  temporary 
wooden  staging  was  erected  on  the  solid  rock  at  each 
end  of  the  viaduct,  and  two  steel  ropes  were  stretched 
across  the  valley  between  the  towers.  The  various 
parts  necessary  for  the  erection  of  the  piers  were 
brought  from  Lima,  hung  on  running  tackle,  and  thus 
conveyed  along  the  ropes  to  their  destination.  In 
spite  of  the  difficult  conditions  under  which  the  work 
had  to  be  carried  out,  the  total  time  occupied  was 
but  48  days,  a  truly  remarkable  feat  1 

At  the   Infernillo,  where  the  main   stream  breaks 

185 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

through  two  perpendicular  walls  of  solid  rock  1500 
feet  high,  the  train  crosses  from  wall  to  wall,  out  of 
the  tunnel  on  one  side  into  the  tunnel  on  the  other 
over  a  bridge  160  feet  long,  165  feet  above  the  seeth- 
ing waters. 

Many  were  the  dangers  to  be  encountered  by  the 
engineers  and  workmen.  The  work  of  triangulation 
for  locating  the  course  of  tunnels  and  cuttings  could 
often  only  be  carried  on  from  niches  cut  in  the  rock, 
to  w^hich  the  adventuresome  engineer  and  his  instru- 
ments were  swung  in  baskets.  Not  less  dreaded  than 
the  slippery  cliffs  was  the  Verrugas  fever,  that  took 
heavy  toll  of  the  labourers.  This  disease  is  peculiar 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Verrugas  stream,  from 
which  it  gets  its  name.  The  patient  is  covered  with 
large  disfiguring  warts,  and  often  afflicted  with  them 
internally,  in  which  case  they  usually  prove  fatal. 
It  was  reported  that  in  one  cutting  alone  no  fewer 
than  700  died  from  this  loathsome  fever. 

The  difficulty  of  getting  material  up  to  the  railhead 
may  be  imagined.  Roads  there  were  none,  except 
such  as  were  specially  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock  for 
the  passage  of  mules.  Frequently  a  ddtour  of  miles 
had  to  be  made  to  reach  a  point  but  a  few  yards 
farther  along  the  course  of  the  railway. 

But  in  spite  of  almost  incredible  difficulties  the 
engineers  pushed  on  among  the  rocky  fastnesses  to 
the  summit  of  the  pass  at  Galera,  whence  the  track 
falls  away  gradually  to  the  terminus  at  Oroya. 

Travellers  who  have  journeyed  on  this  remarkable 

186 


The  Loftiest  Railway  in  the  World 

line,  and  made  friends  with  the  engineers  to  the 
extent  of  securing  a  ^^  coast "  on  a  hand-car  from 
Galera  to  the  terminus  at  Callao,  are  one  and  all 
enthusiastic  over  their  experience.  Most  of  us  have 
knovi^n  the  delights  of  flying  down  a  hill  on  a  cycle  ; 
or  perhaps  we  have  tasted  the  more  sudden  joys  of 
a  switchback  or  water-chute  at  the  Exhibitions. 

But  a  hundred-mile  coast,  unbroken,  over  steel 
rails,  among  most  terrific  precipices,  through  yawning 
tunnels,  over  giddy  bridges  at  a  speed  that  severely 
tries  the  nerves  of  the  novice  until  he  settles  down 
to  a  fatalistic  apathy,  or,  catching  the  infection  of 
rapid  motion,  suggests  a  higher  speed  ! 

Mr.  Gallenga,  in  his  interesting  book  on  South 
America,  thus  describes  his  sensations  : — 

*'The  hand-car,  a  light,  small,  and  low  railway 
truck,  with  two  low-backed  seats,  and  room  for  two 
in  each,  moving  with  the  ease  of  a  chariot  in  the 
so-called  ^*  Montagnes-Russes,''  upon  a  gentle  push 
from  behind  acquires,  after  a  few  yards'  slope,  a 
momentum  of  which  it  would  be  awful  to  foretell 
the  consequences  were  it  not  for  the  breaks  with 
which  it  is  supplied  like  an  engine,  and  by  which 
the  driver  has  power  to  pull  up  in  a  few  seconds, 
and  within  a  few  yards  of  any  point  he  may  reach 
in  his  headlong  career.  But  the  driver  himself,  being 
human,  delights  in  that  entrancing  rapidity  of  motion, 
and  is  soon  almost  unconsciously  swayed  by  the  fiery 
instincts  of  a  racing  horse.  Away  you  go  along  this 
curve,  away  you  tear  round  that  corner,  away  you 

187 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

rush  and  dash  from  turning  to  turning,  through 
this  cutting  and  that  tunnel,  with  your  face  barely 
one  foot  from  the  hard  jagged  rocks  of  the  cutting 
on  your  right,  and  your  knees  barely  one  foot  from 
the  brink  of  the  dizzy  precipice  on  your  left ;  down 
you  plunge  into  the  pitch-dark  tunnel,  yourself  with- 
out a  light,  without  a  "  cow-catcher,"  without  a  bell 
or  whistle  to  scare  away  the  stray  cattle  that  often 
run  to  it  for  shelter ;  away  you  go,  neck  or  nothing, 
till  all  your  terrors  are  shaken  from  you,  and  you 
become  a  convert  to  the  ^perfect  safety'  doctrine, 
or  till,  with  a  fatalist's  sullen  courage,  you  set  your 
teeth  hard,  you  fold  your  arms  on  your  breast,  and 
almost  urge  the  driver  to  more  speed,  as  if  thinking 
that,  if  there  is  to  be  a  smash,  it  may  just  as  well  be 
now  as  by-and-by." 

There  are  of  course  dangers  in  such  a  headlong 
rush.  The  curves  are  very  sharp,  and  the  inside 
rail  is  not  sufficiently  depressed  to  resist  more  than 
a  certain  amount  of  centrifugal  force.  Also  rocks 
and  stones  often  fall  into  the  track,  and  at  the  sudden 
turns  it  is  almost  impossible  to  see  an  object  a  few 
yards  ahead  before  the  car  has  reached  it.  The 
ubiquitous  dog,  too,  is  found  in  the  Andes,  with 
its  everlasting  antipathy  to  things  of  swift  motion ; 
sometimes  he  carries  his  hostility  too  far,  and  there 
is  a  collision — well  if  nothing  serious  results  to  any- 
thing except  the  dog. 

''This  Oroya  Railway  is  a  very  wonderful  line 
indeed.     It  not  only  climbs   higher  than  any  other 

i88 


The  Loftiest  Railway  in  the  World 

railway  in  the  world,  but  .  .  .  provides  the  only  road 
in  the  world  down  which  a  man  on  wheels  can  travel 
for  over  one  hundred  miles  by  his  own  momentum, 
and  practically  at  any  pace  to  which  the  fiend  of 
recklessness  may  urge  him.  .  .  .  You  start  under 
the  eye  of  the  eternal  snows,  and  you  finish  among 
humming  birds  and  palms.  You  start  sick  with  the 
unspeakable  sickness  of  soroche^  and  you  finish  in  the 
ecstasy  of  an  exultation  too  great  for  words."  ^ 

On  the  Darjeeling  railway  the  would-be  scorcher 
may  experience  the  same  delights  for  a  more  limited 
period,  and  on  the  great  divide  of  the  Trans- 
American  lines. 

^  Lord  Ernest  Hamilton  in  Pearson^ s  Magazine* 


189 


CHAPTER    X 

CITY   RAILWAYS 

Among  the  problems  that  perplex  the  civic  authorities 
of  the  world's  great  cities,  none  is  more  difficult  of 
solution  than  that  which  arises  from  the  increasing 
congestion  of  traffic  in  the  main  thoroughfares. 

In  every  large  town  vehicular  traffic  is  confined 
to  a  comparatively  few  routes.  As  the  town  grows, 
the  streets,  which  do  not  expand  their  width  in  pro- 
portion, become  less  and  less  adequate  to  pass  the 
thousands  of  vehicles  that  crowd  into  them. 

Nowhere  has  the  congestion  become  more  serious 
than  in  London,  where  the  sight  of  huge  strings  of 
omnibuses,  cabs,  and  carts,  brought  to  a  standstill  by 
a  "  block,"  is  too  common  to  cause  much  comment. 
Travel  through  London  streets  is  notoriously  slow, 
and  the  delay,  besides  being  vexatious  to  the  in- 
dividual, has  been  calculated  to  cost  the  community 
several  million  pounds  sterling  per  annum.  The 
difficulty  of  moving  swiftly  from  point  to  point  has 
a  further  bad  influence  as  being  productive  of  over- 
crowding, since  the  poorer  classes  of  workers  are 
prevented  from  living  at  a  reasonable  distance  from 
the  scene  of  their  daily  toil. 

Patent  as  are  the  needs  for  freer  communication 
190 


City  Railways 


between  the  centre  and  suburbs  of  large  cities,  the 
means  of  meeting  them  are  restricted.  Old  towns, 
where  the  congestion  is  most  acute,  are  often  cursed 
with  narrow  streets,  the  widening  of  which  would  be 
ruinously  expensive.  Electric  trams,  by  monopolis- 
ing the  roadway  would,  in  many  cases,  practically 
block  /all  other  vehicular  traffic,  and  cause  great  in- 
confirenience  until  such  time  as  competition  in  fares 
has  driven  other  public  vehicles  off  the  road. 

It  also  happens  that  in  great  commercial  centres, 
such  as  London  and  New  York,  a  large  area  is  given 
up  almost  exclusively  to  offices,  which  at  night  are 
deserted,  but  must  be  filled  rapidly  each  morning, 
and  emptied  as  rapidly  in  the  evening.  Thus,  to 
take  the  City  of  London  proper,  although  but  a 
square  mile  in  area,  with  a  day  population  of  about 
300,000,  and  a  night  population  of  perhaps  30,000, 
in  a  single  day  more  than  1,250,000  persons  and 
100,000  vehicles  enter  and  leave  the  limits. 

Vehicular  traffic  on  the  surface  can  be  eased  only 
by  providing  more  or  wider  streets,  or  by  removing 
the  necessity  for  the  existence  of  a  large  proportion 
of  the  vehicles.  The  object  of  modern  systems  of 
communication  is  to  replace  the  thousands  of  in- 
dependent vehicles  that  block  our  streets  by  some 
ordered  arrangement  of  transport,  running  at  regular 
intervals  on  its  private  tracks,  out  of  the  way  of 
ordinary  traffic. 

Two  main  methods  may  be  distinguished :  the 
elevated  railway,  which  is  carried  aloft  over  the  streets, 

191 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

and  the  subterranean  railway  that  runs  binder  the 
streets.  In  both  cases  the  prime  object  is  to  keep 
as  near  the  main  routes  as  possible. 

The  States  are  the  home  of  the  Elevated  Railway. 
The  first  was  built  in  New  York  in  1870  on  a  single 
row  of  columns.  By  1878  there  were  four  such  Hues, 
parallel,  in  New  York;  and  since  that  date  similar 
tracks  have  been  laid  in  Boston,  Chicago,  Berlin,  and 
Liverpool.  Railways  of  this  type  are  especially 
suitable  where  the  traffic  is  light  and  the  con- 
struction of  the  line  does  not  injure  neighbouring 
property. 

For  really  heavy  traffic,  or  where  a  line  must  be  built 
at  any  cost,  the  engineer  resorts  to  the  underground 
railway. 

This  may  take  one  of  three  forms.  It  may  be  just 
under  the  street,  separated  from  surface  traffic  by  but 
a  foot  or  two  of  steel  girders  and  cement,  as  in  the 
Buda-Pesth  and  New  York  Rapid  Transit  Railways. 
The  latter  has  four  tracks  abreast  in  as  many  tunnels, 
the  inner  pair  for  fast,  the  outer  pair  for  local,  traffic. 
These  lines,  as  easily  accessible  from  the  street,  are 
very  convenient  when  made  ;  but  their  construction 
entails  the  pulling  up  of  the  roadway,  the  displace- 
ment of  water,  gas,  and  sewerage  pipes,  with  all  the 
attendant  drawbacks. 

The  second  type  is  illustrated  by  the  London  Metro- 
politan and  District  Railways,  constructed  by  "cut 
and  cover,"  and  shallow  tunnels  at  such  a  depth  (30 
to  40  feet  below  the  road  level)  as  to   obviate  the 

192 


City  Railways 

necessity  of  lifts,  though  deep  enough  to  be 
inconvenient. 

The  third  and  most  modern  type  is  the  electrically 
worked  deep  level  "tube,"  driven  40  to  120  feet 
below  the  roadway.  Such  a  line  is  economical  to 
build,  as  it  entails  no  interference  with  existing 
structures,  but  has  the  disadvantages  arising  from  the 
constant  employment  of  lifts  for  the  transport  of 
passengers  to  and  from  the  surface. 

For  London  needs,  however,  the  tube  is  particularly 
suitable.  The  "  Inner  Circle,"  completed  in  1884,  is 
most  useful  as  furnishing  a  connecting  link  between 
most  of  the  London  termini  of  the  great  lines.  But 
for  the  "  City  man "  hastening  to  business  it  leaves 
much  to  be  desired,  since  it  skirts  the  area  in  which 
his  business  lies,  and  often  drives  him  eventually  to 
the  cab  or  omnibus. 

London's  crying  need  is  for  radial  lines,  to  intersect 
the  area  enclosed  by  the  Inner  Circle  from  east  to 
west  and  north  to  south,  and  extend  into  the  suburbs. 

Already  three  "  tubes  "  are  in  operation — the  Central 
London,  from  Shepherd's  Bush  to  the  Bank ;  the 
Waterloo  and  City;  and  the  Stockwell-Monument. 
Others  are  in  course  of  construction,  from  Baker 
Street  via  Charing  Cross  to  Waterloo,  and  from  the 
City  to  Finsbury.  In  addition,  powers  have  been 
granted  for  new  railways  between  Brompton  and 
Piccadilly  ;  Charing  Cross,  Euston,  and  Hampstead ; 
Brixton  and  the  City  ;  the  Marble  Arch  and  Crickle- 
wood.     A  few  years  hence  there  is  every  prospect  of 

193  N 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

the  clay  on  which  London  stands  being  honeycombed 
by  ^^  tubes." 

From  the  tube  to  the  teredo  or  ship-worm  is  a  far 
cry,  yet  there  is  an  interesting  connection  between 
them.  Sir  Isambard  Brunei,  the  famous  builder  of 
the  first  Thames  Tunnel,  employed  a  shield  to  pierce 
the  soft  ground  under  the  river.  It  is  said  that  he 
derived  his  idea  of  a  shield  from  observation  of  the 
ship-worm,  which  digs  its  way  into  wood  by  means  of 
a  boring  apparatus  in  its  head,  and  as  it  advances  lines 
the  hole  behind  it  with  a  secretion  thrown  out  from 
its  body.  Taking  the  hint  from  Nature  he  patented  in 
1818  a  device,  consisting  of  an  iron  cylinder  furnished 
at  its  front  end  with  an  augur-like  cutter.  As  the 
cylinder  advanced  the  hole  behind  was  to  be  lined 
with  a  spiral  sheet-iron  plating,  faced  on  the  interior 
with  masonry. 

Brunei's  crude  idea  has  been  immensely  improved 
upon  by  himself,  Mr.  Peter  W.  Barlow,  and  Mr.  J.  H. 
Greathead,  who  has  given  his  name  to  the  shield 
employed  on  the  London  tubes. 

The  Greathead  shield  consists  of  three  parts,  the 
front,  the  body,  and  the  tail.  The  shield  is  perfectly 
circular  and  cylindrical,  and  is  built  up  of  steel  plates 
riveted  together  with  countersunk  rivets  so  as  to  give 
an  absolutely  smooth  surface  on  the  outside.  To 
stiffen  the  cylinder  a  diaphragm  or  bulkhead,  in  which 
is  cut  a  hole  for  working  through,  is  fixed  transversely. 
The  front  end  extends  forward  from  the  diaphragm 
to  the  cutting-edge,  which  is  formed  of  a  strong  cast- 

194 


City  Railways 

iron  ring  divided  in  halves,  on  which  are  secured  steel 
knives  made  in  short  segments  and  forming  a  true 
circular  cutting-edge.  The  knives  are  arranged  in 
such  a  manner  that  if  necessary  they  can  be  adjusted 
to  cut  a  hole  slightly  larger  than  the  shield. 

At  the  back  of  the  bulkhead  comes  the  body,  in 
which  are  located  the  jacks,  pumps,  and  motors  for 
manipulating  the  shield.  At  the  back  end  is  a  power- 
ful cast-iron  ring,  to  which  are  attached,  at  regular 
intervals  round  the  circumference,  the  hydraulic  rams 
for  forcing  the  shield  forward.  The  united  power 
of  these  hydrauHc  jacks  is  immense,  as  even  in  stiff 
and  stable  clays,  where  the  friction  is  at  a  minimum, 
a  pressure  of  4  or  5  tons  for  every  square  yard  of 
the  external  surface  of  the  shield  is  required,  and  in 
sticky  material  the  power  must  be  increased  to  18 
or  24  tons  per  square  yard  of  exterior  shell.  Each 
jack  can  be  used  independently  of  the  rest,  and  by 
suitable  combinations  the  course  of  the  shield  is  steered 
to  a  nicety. 

The  tail  of  the  shield  serves  to  support  the  earth 
while  the  lining  is  being  placed.  For  this  feason  its 
diameter  is  such  as  just  to  clear  the  outside  of  the 
lining,  which  is  added  inside  it. 

The  details  of  the  shield  vary  with  the  nature  of  the 
stratum  penetrated.  In  very  stable  material,  where 
caving  and  water  inroads  are  unlikely,  the  diaphragm 
may  be  omitted ;  while  in  treacherous  water-logged 
materials,  such  as  were  encountered  in  the  bed  of  the 
Mersey  (see  page  73)  and  Thames  during  the  driving 

195 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

of  the  Waterloo-Baker  Street  tunnels,  means  must  be 
provided  for  closing  the  shield  entirely  and  converting 
the  front  end  into  an  air-tight'  chamber  accessible 
through  air-locks. 

After  this  short  description  of  the  boring  %paratus, 
we  will  turn  our  attention  to  the  sphere  of  its  operations. 

The  City  and  South  London  Railway,  extending 
under  the  Thames  from  the  Monument  to  Stockwell, 
a  distance  of  3 J  miles,  was  begun  in  1886  by  Great- 
head.  Its  promoters  originally  intended  to  operate 
it  by  an  endless  cable,  but  during  its  construction 
electric  traction  developed  sufficiently  to  be  applied 
to  this  first  of  tube  railways.  The  tunnels,  running 
parallel,  are  10  feet  2  inches  in  diameter. 

The  Waterloo-City  tube  was  next  constructed,  and 
in  1896  the  engineers  commenced  the  most  important 
of  the  lines  at  present  open,  the  Central  London 
Railway. 

The  construction  of  the  "tube"  is  very  unostenta- 
tious and  attracts  little  attention.  All  the  public  sees 
is  a  series  of  enclosures  surrounded  with  hoardings, 
in  and  out  of  which  carts  pass  laden  with  earth  or 
strangely-shaped  masses  of  iron.  A  steam  crane  or 
two  tells  of  work  in  progress,  but  there  is  little  for  the 
inquisitive  passer-by  to  watch. 

The  scene  of  active  operations  is  far  down  below 
his  feet,  where  shields  are  steadily  eating  their  way 
through  the  stiff  London  clay. 

Excavation   proceeds^  from   several   points  simul- 

1  The  Central  London  Railway  is  taken  as  typical. 
196 


o      5 
3 


i^  CQ 


^   "^ 


City  Railways 

taneously.  At  the  site  of  each  station  a  shaft  is  sunk, 
and  Hned  with  cast-iron  segments,  bolted  together. 
As  soon  as  the  shaft  is  completed  temporary  cages 
are  provided  for  bringing  up  the  excavated  material. 
A  chamber  is  then  cut  out  in  which  the  smaller  shield 
for  driving  the  track  tunnels  is  erected.  Its  diameter 
is  12  feet  8  inches.  Several  rings  of  lining,  each  20 
inches  long,  are  placed,  and  the  shield  adjusted  so 
that  its  six  rams  get  a  push-off  from  the  most  advanced 
of  them.  Water  power  is  then  applied,  and  the  shield 
moves  forward  through  the  clay  which  has  been 
partially  removed  in  advance.  Taps  are  turned  on, 
and  the  rams  retire  into  their  cylinders,  making  way 
for  the  next  ring,  which  in  turn  takes  the  pressure  off 
the  rams.  The  annular  space  left  outside  the  lining 
by  the  tail  of  the  shield  is  now  filled  in  with  liquid 
cement,  squirted  through  holes  in  the  lining  under 
pneumatic  pressure.  The  rate  of  progress  varies  from 
two  to  four  rings  every  ten-hour  shift. 

For  removing  the  clay  an  ingenious  form  of  electric 
excavator  was  used  on  several  sections  of  the  tunnel- 
ling. The  machine  is  a  dredger  ladder,  the  working 
end  of  which  can  be  moved  vertically,  horizontally, 
and  longitudinally.  Thirty-seven  buckets  on  an  end- 
less chain  scrape  the  working  face,  and  carry  the 
spoil  back  into  the  small  waggons  that  roll  under  the 
rear  end  of  the  machine.  It  was  found  that  this  con- 
trivance removed  so  much  of  the  face  that  the  shield 
could  cut  away  the  remainder,  so  obviating  the  need 
of    hand-picking.      As    soon    as    the  men   came  to 

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Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

thoroughly  understand  it,  the  rate  of  advance  in- 
creased rapidly,  and  eventually  four  rings  were  placed 
in  the  shift.  With  the  machine  only  six  men  were 
required  at  the  face  ;  without  it,  fourteen. 

For  clearing  the  stations  a  large  shield,  22  feet  10 
inches  diameter,  was  used,  driven  by  twenty-two 
hydraulic  rams.  The  stations  are  325  feet  long.  The 
iron  segments  are  filled  in  with  cement  and  lined  with 
white  glazed  tiles,  which  materially  aid  the  illumina- 
tion of  the  platforms. 

The  tunnels  as  a  rule  run  side  by  side,  but  in  one  or 
two  places,  e.g.  at  Newgate  Street  and  Notting  Hill 
Gate,  where  the  roadway  is  narrow  (and  the  line  must 
keep  under  the  road),  the  tunnels  curve  upwards  and 
downwards  until  they  pass  one  over  the  other. 

The  depth  of  the  line  varies  considerably.  At  the 
Bank  the  metals  lie  60  feet  below  the  surface,  at 
Oxford  Circus  80  feet,  at  Notting  Hill  92  feet.  The 
engineers  have  arranged  the  stations  on  the  summit 
of  gradients,  which  assist  the  train  to  stop,  and  also  to 
start.  On  leaving  a  station  the  tunnel  drops  at  a 
gradient  of  i  in  30  for  300  feet,  and  when  approaching 
rises  i  in  60  for  about  600  feet ;  so  that  the  stations 
stand  about  10  feet  above  the  general  level  of  the 
line. 

The  most  difficult  part  of  the  construction  was  at 
the  Bank  Station,  where  a  regular  network  of  subways 
cuts  the  existing  gas  and  water  pipes.  The  station 
space  here  is  entirely  underground,  a  few  feet  below 
the  surface.      But  the   station,  lift-shafts,   &c.,   were 

198 


City  Railways 


made  without  in  any  way  disturbing  the  traffic  over- 
head. 

The  Central  London  Railway  was  opened  on  July 
29,  1900.  It  cost  ;f3;5oo,ooo.  The  engineers  were 
Sir  John  Fowler,  Sir  Benjamin  Baker,  and  Mr  Basil 
Mott.  The  need  for  its  construction  is  proved  by  the 
passenger  returns,  which  in  1901  showed  41,188,389 
tickets  taken.  Two  objections  have  been  raised  to 
the  **Tube" — the  vibration,  which  seriously  annoys 
the  occupants  of  houses  on  the  route,  and  bad  ventila- 
tion. The  first  could  be  largely  removed  by  the 
employment  of  what  is  known  as  the  multiple-unit 
system  of  traction,  in  which  every  car  or  group  of 
two  cars  is  furnished  with  its  own  motors,  and  may 
be  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  train.  The  displace- 
ment of  the  heavy  pounding  locomotive  by  motors 
distributed  among  the  cars  will  not  only  lessen  the 
vibration,  but  render  the  handling  of  traffic  much 
more  elastic.  Trains  can  be  lengthened  or  shortened 
according  to  the  varying  requirements  of  traffic  at 
different  times  of  day.  In  America  the  multiple-unit 
system  is  generally  used  on  about  3000  cars,  aggregat- 
ing 375,000  horse  power.  Mr.  Frank  J.  Sprague, 
whose  name  is  so  well  known  in  connection  with 
electrically  operated  rails,  says  :  '^ — 

"The  ideal  service,  so  far  as  the  passenger  alone  is 
concerned,  would  be  by  single  cars  operated  at  high 
speeds,  and  following  each  other  at  the  shortest  pos- 

*  T^e  Engineering  Magazine^  October  1901. 
199 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

sible  intervals.  The  conditions  of  tunnel  service, 
however,  and  the  heavy  character  of  the  traffic  at 
certain  hours  prohibit  this  ideal  condition.  So  there 
must  be,  to  get  the  most  practical  results,  an  expan- 
sion of  the  car  into  a  train  varying  in  length  according 
to  the  time  of  day,  and  a  lengthening  of  intervals  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  operation  at  high  speed.  .  .  . 
Such  a  system  readily  lends  itself  to  every  condition 
of  congested  service.  The  similarity  of  equipment 
insures  flexibility  of  train  operation,  and  provides  a 
motive  power  proportioned  to  the  requirements." 

Briefly  put,  "  one  car  one  motor  "  appears,  as  a 
principle,  better  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  rapid 
travel  between  frequent  stations  than,  "  one  train  one 
locomotive."  Two  main  steam  lines,  the  North- 
Eastern  and  South- Western,  have  recognised  the  ex- 
pediency, and  placed  single  motor-coaches  on  their 
metals  to  run  at  short  intervals  between  the  regular 
train  service.  In  course  of  time  we  shall  see  the 
Metropolitan  and  District  Railway  electrified,  and 
also  some  of  the  suburban  lines.  In  fact,  it  is  not 
over  bold  to  prophesy  that  the  competition  of  tubes 
and  trams  will  drive  all  local  and  suburban  lines  to 
the  electric  current,  with  its  far  greater  range  of  train 
load  than  is  possible  economically  with  the  steam 
locomotive.  To  quote  Mr.  Sprague  again:  "The 
electric  railway  has  become  a  modern  necessity,  and 
the  greatest  of  philanthropic  agents.  It  is  a  distri- 
butor of  the  masses,  and  the  most  effective  agent  in 
solving    the    housing    problems   of    the    metropolis. 

200 


City 


Railways 

Every  minute  taken  from  the  time  of  transit  to  and 
from  business  is  a  minute  added  to  the  fireside  and 
home.  Every  increase  of  speed  adds  to  available 
dwelling  space,  increases  taxable  areas,  augments 
traffic,  and  betters  the  morale  of  the  people.  The 
days  of  doubt  and  hesitation  have  long  passed. 
Within  thirteen  years,  in  the  United  States  alone, 
electricity  has  been  adopted  on  more  miles  of  street, 
elevated  and  suburban  track,  replacing  horse,  cable, 
and  steam  equipments,  than  there  are  miles  of  steam 
railway  in  Great  Britain.  It  needs  but  a  practical 
survey  of  all  that  has  been  accomplished  in  this  con- 
nection to  realise  the  immense  benefits  possible  by  an 
intelligent  adoption  of  electric  propulsion." 

The  Baker  Street- Waterloo  line,  in  course  of  con- 
struction, will  be  of  an  importance  second  only  to 
that  of  the  Central  London,  as  it  affords  the  much- 
needed  link  from  north  to  south  along  the  route 
between  Regent's  Park  and  Charing  Cross,  which  is 
at  present  served  only  by  omnibuses.  The  extension 
to  the  south  side  of  the  Thames  will  also  prove  most 
convenient.  This  line,  which  commences  at  Baker 
Street,  where  it  picks  up  passengers  from  the  St. 
John's  Wood  branch,  passes  along  the  north  side  of 
the  Metropolitan  to  the  north  end  of  Portland  Place, 
under  which  it  runs  to  Oxford  Circus.  Here  pas- 
sengers will  change  on  to  the  Central  London.  The 
line  then  follows  Regent  Street  to  Piccadilly  Circus, 
and  doubles  down  the  Haymarket  to  the  east  side  of 
Trafalgar  Square,  passing  close  to  Nelson's  Column ; 

201 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

then  under  Northumberland  Avenue  to  the  Thames, 
beneath  which  it  passes  a  Httle  west  of  Charing  Cross 
Bridge.  As  an  engineering  feat,  this  line  has  proved 
more  difficult  than  the  Central  London,  on  account 
of  the  several  curves  and  the  passage  of  the  Thames. 

The  first  constructional  work  on  the  line  was  con- 
ducted from  a  stage  built  on  the  north  of  the  Thames. 
Two  vertical  shafts  were  sunk  into  the  bed,  and  frogi 
them  parallel  tunnels  driven  to  meet  borings  working 
southwards  from  Piccadilly  Circus.  In  spite  of  the 
curvature  of  the  route,  the  tunnels  met  so  accurately 
that  an  error  could  scarcely  be  detected.  The  fre- 
quency with  which  this  feat  is  performed  shows  that 
tunnel-ranging  has  become  a  very  exact  science.  As 
on  the  Central  London,  the  gauge  is  standard,  viz. 
4  feet  8J  inches,  and  the  tunnels  have  an  equal  dia- 
meter, II  feet  6  inches.  It  is  expected  that  the  line 
will  be  opened  for  regular  traffic  in  1904.  Eventually 
it  will  extend  to  Bishop's  Road,  Paddington,  and  so 
place  the  Great  Western  Railway  in  direct  communi- 
cation with  the  South-Western  vid  the  West  End. 

Future  tube  railways  will  have  a  larger  diameter 
than  that  of  the  existing  systems.  Expert  opinion 
suggests  13J  feet  as  affording  better  ventilation,  facili- 
tating repairs,  and  minimising  the  effects  of  an  acci- 
dent. The  Great  Northern  and  City  tube  is  16  feet 
in  diameter,  to  accommodate  the  steam  railways' 
ordinary  rolling  stock.  It  may  be  regretted  that 
this  size  was  not  adopted  as  the  standard  for  all  the 
tubes. 

202 


City  Railways 


If  the  various  companies  will  only  work  in  part- 
nership and  organise  the  various  systems  into 
an  harmonious  whole,  London  should  in  a  few 
years'  time  be  one  of  the  best  served  cities  in  the 
world. 


203 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  SEVERN   TUNNEL 

"  The  Severn  Tunnel,  which  is  a  little  over  four  miles  in  length,  is  by 
far  the  most  important  subaqueous  work  yet  accomplished." — Mr.  J.  E. 
TuiT  in  '*  The  Tower  Bridge." 

In  the  West  of  England  the  broad  Severn  estuary 
offers  a  serious  obstruction  to  traffic  between  South 
Wales  and  the  south-west  counties — Cornwall,  Devon, 
Somerset,  and  Dorset.  At  Weston-super-Mare  the 
channel,  still  several  miles  broad,  makes  a  sudden 
turn  in  a  north-east  direction  to  a  point  some  distance 
beyond  Gloucester,  thus  forming  a  natural  obstacle 
on  the  southerly  flank  of  Wales  across  the  main  roads 
from  the  thickly-populated  coal-fields  of  Wales  to  the 
great  Metropolis.  Thomas  Telford,  a  hundred  years 
ago,  linked  up  the  turnpike  road  at  Gloucester  by  a 
bridge  of  150  feet  span,  so  that  coaches  might  travel 
unimpeded ;  and  in  1879  was  completed  an  iron 
bridge  three-quarters  of  a  mile  long,  which  crosses 
the  Severn  26  miles  below  Gloucester,  enabling  the 
Midland  line  to  Bristol  to  tap  the  coal-fields  of  the 
Forest  of  Dean,  and  putting  the  Great  Western  also 
in  more  direct  communication  with  the  same  district. 

Owing  to  the  configuration  of  the  country  in  the 
Stroud  Valley,  the  branch  of  the  Great  Western  that 

204 


The  Severn  Tunnel 

passes  through  it  towards  Gloucester  is  characterised 
by  very  severe  gradients  and  sharp  curves,  that  de- 
tract seriously  from  speed  while  adding  considerably 
to  the  cost  of  haulage. 

To  avoid  this  route  became  the  policy  of  the  enter- 
prising Directors  of  the  Great  Western.  They  con- 
structed a  single  line  from  Bristol  to  New  Passage,  a 
point  a  few  miles  above  Portishead  and  the  Avon- 
mouth  Docks.  On  the  opposite  bank  the  South 
Wales  Railway  terminated  near  Portskewett,  a  small 
agricultural  parish.  On  each  bank  a  large  jetty  was 
thrown  out,  and  a  steam-ferry  supplied  a  means  of 
transporting  goods  and  passengers  across  the  Severn. 
This,  however,  was  far  from  satisfactory.  The  Severn, 
by  presenting  a  funnel-shaped  cul-de-sac  to  the  strong 
tide  running  in  from  the  Atlantic,  is  subjected  at 
spring  tides  to  a  rise  of  50  feet,  rivalling  in  height  that 
of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and  surpassing  anything  to  be 
witnessed  elsewhere  in  England  or  on  the  Continent. 
The  strong  currents  resulting  from  the  sudden  rise 
and  fall  of  the  river  produce  a  continual  shifting  of 
the  sandbanks  most  prejudicial  to  navigation,  and 
render  the  embarkation  at  pierheads  a  troublesome 
proceeding. 

The  Great  Western  Directors  therefore  thought  it 
would  be  to  the  Company's  interests  to  incur  a  further 
expense  to  avoid  "  breaking  bulk  "  and  transhipping 
passengers.  The  bold  project  was  set  on  foot  of 
driving  a  tunnel  under  the  bed  of  the  Severn,  from 
New  Passage  to  Portskewett,  where  the  river  is  more 

205 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

than  2  miles  wide.  The  lowest  point  of  the  tunnel 
must  necessarily  be  under  the  deepest  part  of  the 
channel,  and  unfortunately  that  point  was  within  a 
few  furlongs  of  the  Welsh  bank,  where  the  currents 
have  eaten  out  a  depression  known  as  "  The  Shoots " 
to  a  depth  of  some  50  feet  below  the  general  level  of 
the  bed.  So  that  though  the  New  Passage  end  of  the 
tunnel  would  be  only  700  yards  from  the  river  edge, 
the  Portskewett  face  would  be  if  miles  inland,  in 
order  to  preserve  an  easy  gradient  of  i  in  100 ;  and 
at  each  end  it  would  be  necessary  to  make  large  cut- 
tings of  a  maximum  depth  of  80  to  90  feet — the  tunnel 
itself  to  have  a  total  length  of  4J  miles. 

In  November  1871  Mr.  Charles  Richardson  de- 
posited plans  for  the  tunnel  in  Parliament,  and  in 
the  following  year  an  Act  was  passed  for  its  con- 
struction. 

The  Great  Western  Railway  Company  at  once  set 
to  work,  after  obtaining  the  services  of  Sir  John 
Hawkshaw  as  consulting  engineer.  Sir  John  had 
already  gained  valuable  experience  of  tunnelling  in 
the  completion  of  the  East  London  Railway  from 
Brunei's  Thames  Tunnel  under  the  London  Docks 
through  Wapping,  Shadwell,  and  Whitechapel  —  a 
work  of  extreme  difficulty. 

A  start  was  made  in  1873  by  sinking  a  shaft — after- 
wards known  as  the  Old  Shaft — 15  feet  in  diameter 
and  200  feet  deep,  on  the  Monmouthshire  side,  and 
lining  it  with  brick.  From  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  a 
heading,  or  horizontal  excavation,  was   made  river- 

206 


The  Severn  Tunnel 

wards  in  the  line  of  the  tunnel,  to  act  as  a  drain  that 
should  tap  the  tunnel  at  its  lowest  point  under  ^'  The 
Shoots."  It  had  an  upward  gradient  of  i  in  500,  and 
in  section  was  7  feet  square. 

Matters  progressed  so  slowly,  however,  through 
want  of  a  sufficient  staff,  that  by  the  latter  half  of 
1877,  or  after  four  and  a  half  years'  work,  the  Com- 
pany, who  were  carrying  on  the  excavations,  decided 
to  ask  for  tenders  for  the  completion  of  the  whole 
work.  Three  estimates  were  sent  in,  one  by  Mr.  T. 
A.  Walker,  who  afterwards  took  so  important  a  part 
in  the  construction  of  the  tunnel.  But  the  estimates 
being  considered  excessive,  the  Company  decided  to 
continue  a  heading  right  under  the  river,  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  nature  of  the  strata  to  be  pierced  before 
going  to  the  contractors.  Small  contracts  were, 
however,  let  for  the  sinking  of  one  shaft  on  the 
Gloucester  side,  and  two  on  the  Welsh  side,  known 
as  the  Marsh  and  Hill  Shafts ;  and  for  the  driving  of 
horizontal  headings  both  ways  from  the  bottoms  of 
the  shafts. 

The  Company  then  completed  a  second  shaft  for 
pumping  near  Old  Shaft,  and  lined  it  with  iron  to 
within  a  few  feet  from  the  bottom,  where  it  was  con- 
nected to  its  neighbour  by  a  short  tunnel  closed  at 
the  Iron  Shaft  end  by  a  small  trap-door. 

On  October  18,  1879,  an  incident  took  place  which 
marked  the  date  as  a  black  day  in  the  history 
of  the  tunnel.  In  order  that  the  reader  may  under- 
stand clearly  what  follows,  it  will  be  necessary  to 

207 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

explain  that  40  feet  above  the  drain-heading  running 
under  the  river  from  the  bottom  of  Old  Shaft,  head- 
ings were  being  broken  in  both  directions  from  the 
same  shaft  for  the  traffic  tunnel,  which  at  this  spot 
would  have  risen  some  distance  above  its  lowest 
point.  Men  were  working  in  the  western  heading, 
when  suddenly  a  large  body  of  water  was  tapped,  and 
after  valiant,  but  vain,  efforts  to  stem  the  tide,  the 
excavators  had  to  fly  for  their  lives.  The  water, 
leaping  from  the  heading-face  a  sheer  40  feet  to  the 
bottom  of  Old  Shaft,  began  to  fill  up  the  long  sub- 
river  heading,  and  the  men  there  would  have  had  all 
means  of  flight  cut  off  but  for  the  cross  tunnel  to  the 
Iron  Pit,  through  which  they  escaped. 

In  twenty-four  hours'  time  the  whole  of  the  work- 
ings in  connection  with  Old  Pit — that  is  to  say,  by 
far  the  largest  portion  of  the  excavations — were  full 
to  tide  level,  and  the  result  of  seven  years'  labour  ap- 
peared a  melancholy  failure.  Hitherto  the  general 
opinion  had  been  that  danger  from  water — that  un- 
tiring, wakeful  foe  of  the  tunnel-driver — was  to  be 
apprehended  while  piercing  the  strata  below  the  river. 
But  inasmuch  as  the  water  that  had  burst  in  was 
fresh  and  sweet,  it  became  evident  that  the  engineers 
had  to  reckon  with  some  subterranean  supply  fed  by 
the  neighbouring  hills. 

The  Directors  decided  on  drastic  measures.  They 
appointed  Sir  John  Hawkshaw  engineer -in -chief, 
giving  him  powers  to  place  a  contract  with  some  one 
whom  he  might  consider  to  be  a  fit  person  to  carry 

208 


The  Severn  Tunnel 

out  the  work.  He  selected  Mr.  T.  A.  Walker.  This 
gentleman  had  already  won  his  spurs  as  a  railway 
surveyor  and  contractor  in  Canada,  Russia,  and 
Egypt ;  and  under  Sir  John  had  completed  the  East 
London  Railway  extension  referred  to  above.  He 
now  made  a  contract  to  finish  the  tunnel,  cuttings, 
and  approaches,  a  total  length  of  8  miles  26  chains ; 
the  tunnel  to  carry  a  double  hne  of  rails,  and  be 
24  feet  high  inside  from  top  of  arch  to  lowest  point 
of  invert,  with  a  maximum  width  of  26  feet  at  the 
spring  of  the  arch. 

In  signing  the  agreement  he  entered  upon  an 
undertaking  not  to  be  matched  in  engineering,  unless, 
perhaps,  we  except  the  driving  of  the  Kilsby  tunnel 
by  Robert  Stephenson.  A  digression  for  a  few  lines 
will  be  excusable,  in  order  to  remind  the  reader  of 
Stephenson's  famous  feat.  When  the  North-Western 
Railway  was  in  course  of  construction,  the  promoters 
proposed  to  carry  it  through  Nottingham.  But  the 
Nottinghamians  would  have  none  of  the  new-fangled 
iron  horse,  and  a  detour  must  be  made  through  the 
hills  near  Rugby.  Stephenson  faced  the  gigantic  task 
of  cutting  a  tunnel  ij  mile  long,  after  he  had,  by 
means  of  trial  shafts,  ascertained,  as  he  thought,  the 
exact  nature  of  the  strata  to  be  encountered.  A  con- 
tract was  let  to  build  the  tunnel  for  ;£99,ooo.  Before 
work  had  proceeded  far  the  unfortunate  contractor 
ran  against  a  large,  water-logged  quicksand.  He  died 
soon  afterwards,  heart-broken,  though  the  Company 
generously  waived  the  terms  of  the  contract.     Robert 

209  o 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Stephenson  stepped  into  the  breach,  declaring  that 
he  was  quite  able  to  master  the  quicksand,  by  the 
simple,  even  if  expensive,  method  of  pumping  it  dry. 
The  pumps  threw  out  water  ceaselessly  for  nine 
months  at  the  rate  of  1600  gallons  a  minute,  but  with- 
out any  apparent  benefit,  until  the  patience  of  the 
Directors  gave  way.  They  said  that  to  go  on  fling- 
ing good  money  after  bad  would  be  madness.  "  Give 
me  another  fortnight,"  replied  Stephenson,  "and  if  by 
the  end  of  that  time  matters  are  as  bad  as  ever,  we 
must  abandon  the  tunnel." 

We  may  imagine  the  anxiety  with  which  the  work 
was  watched.  Every  hour  measurements  were  taken 
of  the  water  flowing  to  the  pumps.  The  end  of  the 
fortnight  came  perilously  near,  and  still  no  improve- 
ment. How  poor  Stephenson  must  have  despaired 
inwardly  while  keeping  a  brave  front  to  his  men  ! 
How  deep  must  have  been  his  feelings  of  gratitude 
and  triumph  when  at  the  eleventh  hour  the  word 
went  round  that  the  water  was  not  gaining  1  The 
quicksand  was  almost  dry,  the  tunnel  was  saved,  and 
completed  at  a  cost  of  ;^3oo,ooo. 

Mr.  Walker  at  once  set  about  erecting  pumps  to 
battle  with  the  Great  Spring,  as  it  came  to  be  called, 
and  to  clear  the  flooded  workings.  Before  these 
could  be  emptied  it  was  necessary  to  block  the  head- 
ing into  which  the  spring  had  broken  at  its  opening 
from  the  Old  Pit.  Accordingly  two  shields  were 
made  of  the  same  curvature  as  the  shaft,  sufficiently 
ample  to  cover  the  mouths  of  the  headings  on  either 

210 


The  Severn  Tunnel 

side'.  Unfortunately  the  depth  of  water  from  the 
surface  to  the  headings — 140  feet — produced  so  great 
a  pressure  that  divers  could  not  work  in  it,  and  it 
became  necessary  to  lower  the  water  50  feet  to  reduce 
the  strain.  Great  trouble  was  experienced  with  the 
pumps,  which  gave  way  first  in  one  part  of  their 
mechanism,  then  in  another ;  but  in  spite  of  these 
untoward  incidents  the  shields  were  fixed  by  the  24th 
January  1880,  and  made  water-tight  in  a  few  days 
more.  The  Great  Spring  had  now  been  cut  off,  but 
water  still  leaked  in  at  the  bottom  of  the  Iron  Pit  in 
greater  quantities  than  the  working  pumps  could  cope 
with,  and  there  was  nothing  to  be  done  but  wait  for 
the  arrival  of  additional  pumps.  A  new  18-foot  shaft 
was  put  in  hand  close  to  the  Old  Shaft  and  over  the 
line  of  the  tunnel,  to  act  as  a  pumping-pit. 

At  last  a  long-expected  pump  of  large  capacity 
arrived  and  was  fitted  in  the  Iron  Pit,  which  had 
been  cleared  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  bottom  when 
the  pump  burst  with  terrific  violence,  and  in  an 
hour  or  two  the  shaft  was  full  again.  The  pump 
was  repaired  and  replaced  by  October  14.  On  that 
day,  at  11  A.M.,  began  the  final  struggle  with  the 
water. 

In  twenty-four  hours  the  water  had  been  lowered 
121  feet,  enabling  a  damaged  pump  to  be  repaired  and 
brought  into  action.  These  two  pumps  being  able  to 
do  no  more  than  *^  hold  "  the  water  that  came  in  from 
the  long  sub-river  heading,  Mr.  Walker  determined  to 
close,  if  possible,  a  door  in  a  head-wall  that  had  been 

211 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

built  across  the  heading  at  a  point  looo  feet  from  the 
bottom  of  Old  Shaft.     -      .. 

The  task  was  one  for  a  diver,  and  a  brave  diver  too. 
To  say  nothing  of  the  30-foot  head  of  water  giving  a 
pressure  of  13  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  he  must  walk 
up  the  heading,  drawing  1000  feet  of  hose  after  him, 
go  through  the  wall  door,  close  the  flap  of  one  sluice, 
return  through  the  door,  make  it  fast,  and  screw  down 
a  12-inch  sluice  in  the  other  side  of  the  wall.  A 
diver  named  Lambert  undertook  the  job.  Three 
other  divers  accompanied  him  part  way  to  help  pass 
the  air-hose,  the  friction  of  which  against  the  roof  of 
the  heading  would  have  been  too  great  for  his  tractive 
powers. 

He  set  out  on  his  dangerous  expedition  armed  with 
a  short  crowbar,  and  groped  his  way  in  darkness  over 
the  ddbris — skips,  tools,  lumps  of  rock — until  within 
100  feet  of  the  door,  when  the  weight  of  hose  pre- 
vented farther  progress,  and  he  was  obliged  to  retrace 
his  steps.  Two  days  afterwards  Lambert  made  a 
second  attempt,  wearing  a  Fleuss  dress — which  re- 
places the  air-hose  connection  by  a  cylinder  of  oxy- 
gen carried  on  the  diver's  back — but  remained  under 
water  only  half-an-hour.  A  third  attempt  was  more 
successful ;  Lambert  reached  the  door,  but  did  not 
close  it.  The  fourth  trial,  which  lasted  eighty  minutes,' 
resulted  in  the  closing  of  the  door  and  sluices.  With 
great  anxiety  the  floats  that  told  the  level  were  watched 
after  pumping  recommenced,  but  to  the  disappoint- 
ment of  all  the  subsidence  amounted  at  the  most  to 

212 


umni  JO  3jvj  yjKjjnoio  -  < 


''OOd   NOUIVS  3H±  -*\ 


z 

o 


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o 


CO 

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ft:  :i! 


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00 


V. 


00 


NdJcaSN  hJTAIH 


limn  I  io  livj  ZTT^fAi 


The  Severn  Tunnel 

3  inches  an  hour,  and  at  high  tide  to  nothing  at  all. 
By  the  7th  December,  however,  the  use  of  additional 
pumps  had  cleared  the  Iron  Pit,  and  the  foreman  was 
able  to  reach  the  cross-wall  to  which  Lambert  had 
made  his  venturesome  and  perilous  expedition.  It 
was  then  discovered  that  the  screw-down  valve  tra- 
versing the  wall  had  a  left-handed  screw,  so  that 
Lambert,  while  closing  it  down,  as  he  thought,  was 
in  reality  opening  it  to  its  full  extent.  But  for  this 
mechanical  vagary  the  work  of  pumping  would  have 
been  a  simple  matter  after  the  door  was  closed. 

The  next  thing  to  do  was  to  tackle  the  western 
heading  into  which  the  Great  Spring  had  burst.  The 
door  in  the  shield  at  its  pit  end  being  opened,  the 
engineers  explored  the  scene  of  the  inrush.  A  great 
quantity  of  matter  had  been  washed  in  by  the  water, 
partially  blocking  the  heading,  and  it  was  therefore 
decided  to  keep  out  the  water  by  building  a  wall 
across  the  heading  at  a  point  where  the  ground 
appeared  firm.  This  work  reached  completion  in 
January  1881.  For  two  years  the  Spring  gave  no 
more  trouble. 

The  year  188 1  was  marked  by  three  notable  inci- 
dents. First  came  the  great  snowstorm,  still  notorious, 
that  worked  havoc  throughout  the  British  Isles.  It 
cut  off  communication  between  the  tunnel  and  the 
outside  world,  reducing  the  contractors  to  all  sorts  of 
shifts  to  supply  their  pumping-engines  with  steam,  in 
the  absence  of  a  regular  supply  of  coal  from  South 
Wales. 

213 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

In  May  a  strike  broke  out  among  the  workmen, 
which  for  a  few  days  brought  the  works  to  a  com- 
plete standstill,  but  ended  in  the  men  returning  to 
work  as  before. 

A  month  previously  the  sea  had  found  an  entrance 
into  the  Gloucester  sub-river  heading  from  a  shallow 
reach  called  the  "Salmon  Pool."  Fortunately  for 
the  fate  of  the  tunnel  the  long  heading  from  the 
Sudbrook  or  Portskewett  side  had  not  quite  joined 
that  from  the  Gloucester  bank,  otherwise  the  water 
would  have  poured  across  to  the  bottom  of  Old  Pit, 
scouring  the  whole  of  the  long  heading  with  dis- 
astrous effect.  At  low  water  Mr.  Walker  made  a 
number  of  men  join  hands  and  wade  into  the  Salmon 
Pool,  until  the  sudden  disappearance  of  one  of  them 
for  a  moment  betrayed  the  whereabouts  of  the  inlet. 
A  schooner-load  of  clay  dumped  overboard  at  the 
spot  checked  further  leakage. 

The  remaining  months  of  1881  and  1882  passed 
without  any  serious  accidents  to  delay  the  work,  which 
proceeded  apace.  The  method  employed  in  making 
the  tunnel  was  to  securely  timber  the  headings — 
driven  at  what  was  to  be  the  bottom  level  of  the 
completed  work — and  from  them  to  "break  up"  at 
intervals  to  the  level  of  the  crown  of  the  arch.  Each 
break-up,  timbered  in  turn,  became  the  end  of  a 
top  heading,  6  feet  high  by  5  or  6  feet  wide,  running 
a  few  feet  above  the  lower  heading  for  a  distance 
decided  by  the  nature  of  the  ground,  technically 
known  as  a  "length."     The  top  heading  finished,  a 

214 


The  Severn  Tunnel 

groove  is  cut  along  the  top  of  each  side  wall  to 
receive  a  balk  12  or  more  inches  in  diameter  of  the 
same  length  as  the  "length"  itself.  Vertical  grooves 
are  then  cut  in  the  sides,  and  into  these  are  inserted 
props  to  support  the  longitudinal  balks.  The  excava- 
tors then  dig  into  the  sides  farther,  and  cut  two  more 
horizontal  grooves  rather  farther  from  the  axis  of 
the  tunnel,  but  lower  than  the  first  two  *'  crown-bars." 
Into  these  a  second  pair  of  crown-bars  is  rolled  and 
similarly  secured  by  uprights ;  and  the  operation  is 
continued  until  the  top  heading  has  been  widened 
into  the  outline  of  the  tunnel  arch.  The  floor  has 
now  to  be  cut  away,  and  a  support  provided  for  all 
the  props  at  the  ends  of  the  crown-bars.  A  deep 
groove  is  therefore  sunk  across  the  heading  to  a  point 
a  little  lower  than  the  inferior  ends  of  the  props,  and 
a  massive  beam,  12  to  15  inches  square,  let  into  it. 
A  second  set  of  props  is  then  wedged  between  the 
"sills,"  as  the  cross-beams  are  called,  and  the  crown 
bars. 

The  lower  heading  is  then  widened  and  sills  fixed 
top  and  bottom,  separated  by  tightly-jammed  props ; 
and  then,  the  matter  between  the  two  headings  being 
removed,  a  middle  tier  of  props  set  between  the 
bottom  sill  of  the  top  heading  and  the  top  sill  of 
the  lower  heading. 

If,  then,  the  reader  imagines  himself  to  be  in  a 
length  timbered  ready  for  masonry,  he  will  see  over- 
head a  number  of  horizontal  and  parallel  balks  reach- 
ing from  the  highest  point  of  the  arch  down  each 

215 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

side  of  the  tunnel  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  bottom. 
Each  end  of  the  length  is  shut  in  by  two  tiers  of 
short  upright  beams  bearing  sills,  and  above  these 
again  rises  a  third  fan-shaped  tier  of  supports  taking 
directly  the  weight  of  the  crown -bars. 

The  invert,  or  concave  tunnel  bottom,  is  then 
bricked,  and  after  it  the  two  sides  to  the  spring  of 
the  arch.  It  now  is  time  to  set  the  "  centres " — 
semicircular  wooden  frames — across  the  arch  parallel 
to  one  another  at  a  distance  of  3  or  4  feet,  and  line 
them  on  their  inner  and  outer  sides  with  stout  boards. 
They  act  as  a  support  over  which  the  masons  can 
lay  their  bricks.  Sometimes  the  arch  is  built  inside 
the  crown-bars,  sometimes  outside  them,  and  some- 
times between  them,  the  bars  being  withdrawn 
horizontally  in  turn  to  make  room  for  the  bricks. 

As  soon  as  a  length  is  completed,  the  excavators 
drive  top  headings  from  each  end,  removing  the 
debris  and  bringing  in  timber  and  lining  materials 
through  the  bottom  heading,  which  acts  as  a  common 
feeder  to  a  succession  of  break-ups,  each  of  which 
has  two  ''working-faces."  This  system  enables  the 
work  to  be  pushed  forward  rapidly,  as  in  the  con- 
fined space  of  a  tunnel  only  a  limited  number  of 
men  can  be  advantageously  employed  on  one  face ; 
and  a  great  economy  of  time  results  when  heading- 
driving,  chambering,  timbering,  and  lining  are  in 
simultaneous  progress  at  different  points.  The  care 
exercised  by  foremen  and  miners  is  evident  from 
the  fact  that  out  of  the  1500  "lengths"  taken  out, 

216 


The  Severn  Tunnel 

in  only  one  was  the  timbering  unequal  to  the  strain 
placed  upon  it  by  the  superincumbent  mass. 

The  strata  encountered  were  of  many  kinds.  Start- 
ing from  the  Welsh  bank — alluvium,  sand,  white 
-sandstone,  marl,  conglomerate,  millstone  grit,  coal 
shale,  blue  shale,  clay  shale,  red  sandstone,  grey 
sandstone,  marl,  and  gravel.  In  some  places  pick- 
and-shovel  work  was  able  to  cope  with  the  strata, 
but  in  many  rock-drills  and  blasting  became  neces- 
sary. When  a  large  number  of  break-ups  were  in 
operation  the  amount  of  material  to  be  transported 
to  and  from  the  working-faces  became  so  great  that 
in  the  Gloucester  half  of  the  long  heading  Mr.  Walker 
laid  down  a  double  line  of  rails  between  which  worked 
a  continuous  steel  rope,  actuated  by  an  engine  at  the 
top  of  Sea-Wall  shaft.  The  rope,  or  ^'bond,"  was 
carried  by  horizontal  rollers  placed  on  the  sleepers 
of  the  road  a  few  feet  apart.  When  the  engine  was 
started  the  rope  travelled  at  a  uniform  speed  of  2 
miles  an  hour  round  a  large  pulley  situated  rather 
more  than  a  mile  from  the  foot  of  the  shaft.  Men 
called  '*  hookers-on  "  attached  full  skips  to  the  rope 
flanking  the  "  up '  line,  or  detached  empty  ones  from 
the  ^Mown"  line  rope.  At  the  shaft  bottom  the 
skips  were  placed  in  cages,  and  after  being  hoisted, 
discharged,  and  lowered  again,  returned  for  another 
load.  The  system  works  so  smoothly  that  at  times 
as  many  as  200  skips  were  in  motion  at  once; 
and  the  cost  was  reduced  to  a  fraction  of  that 
of  the  pony  haulage  employed  at  the  Welsh  end. 

217 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

The  reader  must  bear  in  mind  that  in  the  early 
'eighties  the  engineer  was  not  nearly  so  well  equipped 
as  he  is  to-day.  Electric  lighting,  for  instance,  was 
still  in  its  infancy,  and  not  only  were  candles  largely 
used  in  the  workings  of  the  Severn  Tunnel,  but  those 
electric  lamps  installed  give  a  considerable  amount 
of  trouble  and  only  a  very  inadequate  amount  of 
light  according  to  present  ideas.  Rock-boring 
machinery  also  was  not  nearly  so  perfect  as  it  is 
to-day,  and  explosives  not  so  effective.  And  not  until 
1882  was  the  telephone  established  in  the  works. 
Mr.  Walker  considers  that  on  the  very  first  day |  of  its 
instalment  it  averted  a  strike,  since  a  ganger  in  the 
cabin  at  one  end  of  the  wires  overheard  a  man  say- 
ing mutinous  things  in  the  other  cabin,  and  by  dis- 
missing him  prevented  further  mischief.  The  mining 
engineer  is  now  able  to  apply  electricity  in  many 
other  ways  that  were  unknown  at  that  time.  And 
last,  but  not  least,  the  "  pneumatic  shield  "  for  pene- 
trating water-logged  strata  has  since  then  become  a 
much  more  efficient  machine. 

On  the  2nd  of  December  a  curious  panic  seized 
the  workmen  in  the  long  heading  under  the  river. 
Mr.  Walker  found  about  300  to  400  men  at  the  top 
of  the  main  Sudbrook  shaft,  all  breathless  and  excited, 
some  partly  naked.  On  inquiring  what  was  the 
matter,  he  was  told  that  the  river  had  broken  in,  but 
nobody  appeared  to  be  able  to  give  any  definite  state- 
ment as  to  where  it  had  burst  through.  There  was  no 
more  water  than  usual  in  the  pumping-pit,  and  its 

218 


The  Severn  Tunnel 

colour  was  unchanged.  Accordingly  Mr.  Walker  and 
two  foremen  descended  the  shaft  and  found  the  head- 
ing perfectly  dry,  except  for  the  ordinary  drainage 
from  small  leaks.  In  several  places  hats,  kerchiefs, 
waistcoats,  and  leggings  strewed  the  floor  of  the  work- 
ings— marks  of  a  hurried  flight.  It  afterwards  turned 
out  that  some  water,  imprisoned  by  an  obstruction  in 
a  heading  on  the  Gloucester  side,  had,  on  the  removal 
of  the  obstacle,  flowed  down  the  long  heading  and 
topped  the  edge  of  a  shoot  that  carried  any  leakage. 
The  men  at  the  Welsh  end,  not  knowing  the  cause  of 
this  sudden  increase  in  the  flow,  acted  on  a  miner's 
advice  to  "  fly  for  their  lives,"  rushing  to  the  Sudbrook 
winding-shaft.  "When  passing  through  lengths  of 
finished  tunnel,"  says  Mr.  Walker ,i  "  they  spread  out 
in  a  disorderly  crowd,  running  perhaps  20  feet 
wide ;  then  they  would  come  to  a  short  length 
between  two  break-ups,  where  there  was  only  a 
7-foot  heading.  Here  they  threw  each  other  down, 
trampled  upon  each  other,  shouting  and  screaming ; 
and  then,  to  add  to  the  disorder,  the  ponies  in  the 
various  break-ups  took  the  alarm  and  galloped  down 
in  the  direction  of  the  winding-shaft,  trampling  on  the 
prostrate  bodies  of  the  men.  .  .  .  When  the  men 
reached  the  top  of  the  pit,  the  night-shift — which 
would  go  below  at  two  o'clock — had  already  received 
their  pay,  and  were  gathering  ready  to  descend.  It 
may  be  imagined  that  these  men  cruelly  chaffed  the 
others  who  had  come  up,  as  soon  as  it  was  known 
1  In  his  book  on  the  tunnel. 
219 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

that  there  was  no  danger  below ;  and  I  have  reason 
to  think  they  reaped  quite  a  harvest  of  neckties  and 
other  things  thrown  away  by  the  others,  when  they 
went  down  to  their  work." 

Thus  ended  an  incident  which,  comical  enough  in 
itself,  must  have  given  the  men  concerned — no  one 
more  than  the  contractor — a  very  bad  quarter  of  an 
hour. 

Real  troubles  were  about  to  occur  again.  At  the 
close  of  May  1883  an  attempt  was  made  to  open  the 
door  in  the  wall  keeping  out  the  Great  Spring.  But 
the  debris  behind  rendered  all  efforts  vain,  and  even- 
tually a  hole  a  foot  in  diameter  had  to  be  bored 
through  the  door  with  augurs ;  and  through  this 
hole  the  men  tried  to  clear  away  the  impediment. 
This  method  proving  impracticable,  a  heading  was 
driven  below  the  blocked  heading,  and  a  break-up 
made  to  allow  the  water  to  pass  that  way,  and  permit 
an  examination  of  the  upper  heading.  The  men 
found  that  the  roof  had  fallen  in  for  a  length  of  50 
to  60  feet,  and  that  there  was  an  enormous  cavity 
overhead.  An  inclined  heading  was  therefore  driven 
from  the  top  heading  into  the  cavity,  and  quantities  of 
timber  and  other  materials  thrown  into  it  to  protect 
the  bottom  heading.  Three  new  doors  were  then 
built,  one  in  each  of  the  three  headings,  as  a  pre- 
caution against  further  irruptions  of  water. 

But  the  Great  Spring  had  only  been  scotched.     On 

October  10,  1883,  the  unwelcome  news  reached  Mr. 

•   Walker  that  it  was  pouring  into  the  lower  heading  in 

220 


The  Severn  Tunnel 

a  larger  volume  than  had  yet  been  met  with.  He 
found,  on  descending  the  shaft,  a  river  i6  feet  wide 
and  3  feet  6  inches  deep  roaring  down  the  40-foot 
drop  to  the  bottom  of  the  shaft.  The  heading  door 
could  not  be  closed ;  the  pumps  could  not  check  the 
inflow  ;  and  in  a  short  time  the  men  in  the  long  head- 
ing were  making  for  the  Welsh  shore.  The  next  day 
52  feet  of  water  stood  in  the  works.  The  services  of 
Lambert  were  again  requisitioned,  and  this  intrepid 
diver  managed  to  close  the  door  through  which  the 
water  flowed.  By  November  3  the  tunnel  was  again 
freed  of  water  and  the  Great  Spring  in  check. 

As  though  the  lot  of  the  engineers  and  contractors 
had  not  yet  been  sufficiently  hard,  the  sea  next  showed 
its  malice.  The  shore  on  the  Welsh  side  is,  at  the 
water's  edge — the  site  of  the  Old,  Iron,  and  New  Shafts 
— considerably  above  the  high-tide  level.  But  farther 
inland  there  are  flat,  low-lying  marshes — once  fertile 
meadow  land  protected  by  a  sea-wall — liable  to  be 
swept  by  spring  tides.  In  the  centre  of  the  marshes 
the  Marsh  Shaft  had  been  sunk. 

On  October  17,  1883,  the  night-shift  had  descended 
to  their  work  in  the  headings  opening  from  this  shaft. 
It  was  a  tempestuous  night,  the  wind  blowing  south- 
west, and  an  unusually  high  tide  was  known  to  be 
due.  Previously  no  tide  had  ever  reached  the  site  of 
the  shaft,  and  there  appeared  to  be  no  reason  for 
anxiety.  But  the  wind  -  working  with  the  tide,  as  it 
did  in  November  1897  on  the  East  Coast,  piled  up  the 
waters  in  the  Severn  estuary  to  an  alarming  height, 

221 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

A  great  tidal  wave,  advancing  in  a  solid  wall,  burst 
over  the  marshes.  Some  houses,  belonging  to  a  tin- 
plate  works,  were  invaded  by  the  flood  to  a  depth  of 
5  or  6  feet,  and  the  children  had  to  be  placed  for 
safety  on  piled  tables  or  shelves.  The  wave  next 
attacked  the  pumping-station  and  extinguished  the 
fires.  Then,  meeting  the  shaft,  it  roared  down  a  fall 
of  100  feet.  What  must  have  been  the  feelings  of  the 
unhappy  miners  below  !  A  few  managed  to  climb  the 
ladders  and  escape,  but  one  poor  fellow,  when  half- 
way up,  was  torn  off  by  the  violence  of  the  water  and 
hurled  into  the  gulf  below. 

There  remained  eighty-three  men  in  the  shaft.  As 
the  water  rose  they  retreated  farther  up  the  gradient, 
waiting  for  the  end.  Meanwhile  others,  at  the  ground 
level,  were  making  desperate  efforts  to  form  a  circular 
dam  round  the  mouth  of  the  shaft.  Sacks,  timber, 
and  even  clothing  were  used.  Fortunately,  the  first 
fury  of  the  tide  was  soon  expended.  The  dam  served 
its  purpose,  and  preparations  were  made  for  going 
below  with  a  small  boat  to  explore  the  tunnel.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  shaft  the  water  had  risen  to  within 
8  feet  of  the  tunnel  crown.  The  men  were  finally 
rescued  from  the  break-up  in  which  they  had  taken 
refuge,  and  brought  safely  to  the  top.  Had  the  tide 
been  a  few  inches  higher  it  is  probable  that  not  one 
would  have  survived  the  catastrophe. 

The  position  of  affairs  was  now  indeed  lamentable. 
Flooded  headings,  flooded  cuttings,  and  a  spring  of 
unknown  copiousness  to  reckon  with.    The  clearing 

222 


The  Severn  Tunnel 

of  the  sea  water  was  only  a  matter  of  time,  and  the 
workings  were  soon  emptied.  But  the  delays,  meaning 
extra  wages,  the  continually  recurring  need  for  new 
pumps  and  engines  to  meet  some  fresh  catastrophe, 
and  the  huge  bill  for  fuel,  had  already  put  the  con- 
tractor ;^ 1 00,000  out  of  pocket !  Still  he  must 
persevere  with  his  arduous  and  wearing  task :  the 
tunnel  must  be  finished  even  if  it  ruined  him. 

To  the  Big  Spring  Sir  John  Hawkshaw  and  Mr. 
Walker  now  turned  their  earnest  attention.  As  a 
preliminary  to  underground  operations,  the  bed  of  the 
small  river  Neddern — suspected  of  feeding  the  Spring 
— was  lined  with  a  concrete  invert  for  nearly  4 
miles.  A  heading  was  then  driven  parallel-^  to  the 
centre  line  of  the  tunnel,  but  40  feet  to  the  north  of  it, 
so  as  to  drain  the  Spring  from  the  flank  and  leave  the 
site  of  the  tunnel  dry.  The  plan  succeeded  so  well 
that  it  was  possible  to  push  on  the  top  heading  to- 
wards that  running  from  the  next  shaft,  and  on 
October  17  a  way  lay  clear  from  one  end  of  the  tunnel 
to  the  other.  The  chambering  out  of  the  Spring 
length  was,  however,  a  difficult  business,  as  small 
fissures  crossed  the  line  here  and  there.  But  at  last 
the  masons  completed  their  work,  and  the  tunnel  lining 
was  finished. 

On  September  5,  1885,  a  train  passed  through  the 
tunnel  from  end  to  end  carrying  the  chairman  of  the 
Great  Western  Railway  and  a  party  of  friends.  Mr. 
Walker  shortly  afterwards  quitted  the  scene  of  his 
labours  for  South  America,  where  other  work  awaited 

223 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

him.  His  old  enemy  soon  called  him  back.  The 
Great  Spring  was  giving  trouble,  squeezing  the  tunnel 
lining  with  such  force  that  bricks  flew  out  from  their 
settings.  In  order  to  relieve  the  pressure  it  was 
decided  to  erect  a  pumping-station  for  permanent  use. 
Every  day  water  to  the  average  amount  of  24  million 
gallons  is  emptied  by  the  pumps  into  the  Severn,  a 
supply  sufficient,  as  Mr.  Walker  has  calculated,  to 
form  annually  a  lake  1000  acres  in  extent  and  30  feet 
deep. 

The  passenger  whose  lot  it  is  to  be  plunged  for 
some  minutes  into  the  darkness  of  the  Severn  tunnel, 
will,  after  reading  these  lines  be  able  better  to  appre- 
ciate the  magnitude  of  the  work  needed  to  make  his 
swift  passage  a  possibility.  Here  are  a  few  points  for 
him  specially  to  ponder  upon  :  That  the  construction 
of  the  tunnel  occupied  fourteen  years,  and  consumed 
over  77  million  bricks ;  that  the  water  pumped  out 
during  those  years  represents  a  lake  3  miles  square 
and  30  feet  deep  ;  that  though  the  working  was  con- 
ducted from  more  than  forty  break-ups,  the  calcula- 
tions were  made  so  accurately  that,  when  the  sections 
joined,  no  deviation  from  absolute  straightness  in  the 
2f  miles  of  straight  tunnel  could  be  detected  by  in- 
struments. 

Among  submarine  tunnels  the  Severn  holds  first 
place  on  the  score  of  difficulty  in  construction.  Mr, 
Walker  himself  confesses  in  his  book  that  one  such 
tunnel  was  sufficient  for  a  single  lifetime. 


224 


CHAPTER    XII 

THE  SIMPLON  TUNNEL 

An  entertaining  volume  might  be  written  on  the  con- 
flicts between  the  snow-clad,  storm-swept  Alps,  and 
man,  the  soldier  and  engineer.  How  stirring  is  the 
story  of  Hannibal  and  his  Carthaginians,  fresh  from 
the  burning  sands  of  Africa,  pushing  through  the  icy 
horrors  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard  !  And  of  Napoleon, 
snatching  a  shovel  from  the  numbed  grasp  of  a 
pioneer  to  lead  the  attack  on  the  drifts  of  the  pass 
that  lay  between  him  and  the  famous  field  of 
Marengo  I 

Admirable  as  was  the  courage  that  enabled  Cartha- 
ginian, Gaul,  Goth,  Hun,  and  Frenchman  to  triumph 
over  the  resistance  of  nature,  we  must  not  let  the 
fascination  which  attends  the  clash  of  arms  blind 
us  to  the  romance  of  the  later  phases  of  the  struggle, 
still  being  waged,  though  time  has  changed  the 
fashion. 

Now  no  longer  is  seen  the  train  of  elephants  or 
baggage  mules,  and  the  glitter  of  spear  and  sword 
and  bayonet.  In  their  place  we  have  the  iron  steed 
climbing  steadily  through  the  rocky  fastnesses,  and 
those  wonderful  weapons  of  the  engineer,  the  theo- 
dolite and  persistent  mechanical  drill.    Armies  occupy 

225  p 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

the  glens,  but  they  are  armies  of  workmen.  Generals 
issue  orders  and  direct  the  march ;  but  the  march  is 
one  of  peace,  more  fraught  with  the  good  of  mankind 
than  was  the  passage  of  invading  hordes. 

What  patience  and  skill  is  represented  by  the  great 
tubes  that  pierce  Mont  Cenis,  Mount  St.  Gothard, 
the  Arlberg,  and  the  Simplon  !  Yet  the  names  of  the 
men  who  planned  and  executed  such  deeds  are  un- 
known to  the  world  at  large,  though  every  schoolboy 
is  familiar  with  Hannibal  and  Napoleon. 

The  dash  into  the  darkness  of  a  tunnel  is  so 
frequent  an  occurrence  on  a  railway  journey  that 
we  reck  little  of  it.  Perhaps  sometimes,  after  losing 
sight  of  the  sunshine  for  several  minutes,  we  have 
a  dim  consciousness  that  there  has  been  wonderful 
work  done  on  that  part  of  the  line  ;  and  we  return  to 
the  perusal  of  our  books  and  papers  while  our  train 
speeds  on  over  or  through  other  engineering  triumphs. 
Having  eyes,  we  see  not. 

Think  of  the  task  that  an  engineer  sets  himself 
when  he  undertakes  to  burrow  through  a  mountain 
for  several  miles.  To  save  time  he  must  commence 
the  work  at  both  ends  simultaneously.  To  make  sure 
of  the  headings  meeting  he  must  not  put  tool  to  rock 
until  all  his  calculations  have  been  made  most  care- 
fully by  compass  and  theodolite,  and  verified  time 
after  time.  To  deal  with  the  water  springs  possibly 
lurking  in  the  mountain's  heart,  he  must  drive  the 
tunnel  on  a  rising  gradient  to  the  centre — a  much 
more    complicated  feat    than  a   perfectly  rectilinear 

226 


The  Simplon  Tunnel 

course.  To  give  his  men  an  atmosphere  fit  to  breathe, 
special  apparatus  for  ventilation  must  be  installed  that 
will  force  the  outer  air  deep  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
rocky  mass. 

All  this  entails  years  of  anxious  and  unremitting 
toil.  At  any  moment  he  may  find  himself  face  to  face 
with  an  obstacle  that  threatens  the  ruin  of  his  enter- 
prise ;  the  fall  of  a  stratum,  the  inrush  of  a  subterra- 
nean reservoir.     There  are  many  foes  waiting  for  him. 

In  short,  so  great  are  the  uncertainties  and  diffi- 
culties of  tunnel-driving  that  the  engineer,  when  con- 
fronted by  a  range  or  mountains  of  hills,  decides  in 
favour  of  burrowing  only  when  calculation  has  shown 
that  the  longest  way  round  is  not  the  shortest  way 
home.  In  adding  up  the  total  advantages  of  an  open 
road  in  cutting,  and  of  a  tunnel,  there  are  many  things 
to  be  considered  and  weighed  one  against  the  other, 
economy  controlling  the  balance.  A  detour  costs  less 
in  construction,  and  is  sooner  open  for  traffic.  A 
tunnel  is  shorter,  less  expensive  to  maintain,  and 
avoids  the  heavy  gradients  of  the  open  way.  But  its 
initial  cost  is  enormous,  both  in  time  and  money. 
Fortunately  for  international  communication,  the  great 
advance  in  the  art  of  tunnel-building  has  done  much 
to  remove  the  principal  objections  to  tunnels,  and 
when  the  choice  lies  between  a  tunnel  and  a  long 
ddtour  with  stiff  gradients,  the  former  generally  wins 
the  day. 

Hence  some  of  the  most  remarkable  engineering 
triumphs. 

227 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

The  story  of  Mont  Cenis  and  St.  Gothard  tunnels 
has  been  told  so  often  that  it  will  be  here  but  briefly 
recapitulated  as  preface  to  an  account  of  an  even 
greater  undertaking  still  in  progress  beneath  the 
Simplon. 

Between  Italy  and  France  runs  the  range  known 
in  its  different  portions  as  the  Graian  and  Cottian 
Alps.  Prior  to  1871  the  Fell  Railway,  laid  on  the 
road  built  by  the  first  Napoleon,  transported  travellers 
across  the  frontier.  This  track  proving  insufficient, 
Italian  engineers  began  their  surveys  for  a  tunnel 
under  the  Grand  Vallon,  that  should  connect  the 
Paris-Marseilles  railway  system,  by  means  of  a  branch 
from  Macon,  with  the  Italian  lines  that  converge  on 
Turin.  The  work,  commenced  the  same  year,  was, 
thanks  to  the  aid  of  the  newly  invented  air-drills  of 
Sommeiller,  completed  in  1871  at  a  total  expenditure 
of  ;£  3,000,000. 

The  following  year  witnessed  the  inauguration  of 
a  similar  scheme  for  piercing  the  Mount  St.  Gothard, 
and  linking  up  Belgium,  Germany,  and  Switzerland 
with  Italy,  via  Bale  and  Lucerne.  Nearly  300,000,000 
francs  were  guaranteed  by  the  countries  most  inter- 
ested in  the  undertaking,  and  after  the  changes  and 
chances  of  ten  years,  marked  by  labour  and  financial 
difficulties,  the  death  of  M.  Favre,  the  contractor, 
and  the  Franco-German  War,  the  tunnel  was  opened 
to  traffic.  In  addition  to  the  main  tunnel,  9 J  miles 
long,  the  engineers  constructed  several  wonderful 
helicoidal  [ue.  corkscrew-shaped)  tunnels  on  the  ap- 

228 


The  Simplon  Tunnel 

proaches,  in  which  the  track  doubles  back  and  over 
itself  in  a  manner  most  bewildering  to  the  traveller. 

Length  for  length,  the  St.  Gothard  was  driven  almost 
twice  as  fast  as  the  8-mile  Mont  Cenis  (or  more  pro- 
perly, Grand  Vallon)  tunnel. 

The  cry  was  still  for  "  more."  A  glance  at  the 
map  of  Switzerland  reveals  a  railroad  running  from 
Lausanne  along  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Geneva, 
and  on  through  the  Rhone  Valley  to  a  terminus  at 
Brieg,  On  the  Italian  side  of  the  neighbouring  Lepon- 
tine  Alps,  the  northern  lines  throw  out  a  feeler  to 
Arona,  at  the  south  end  of  Lake  Maggiore.  Between 
these  termini  the  only  present  means  of  communication 
is  a  daily  service  of  coaches,  running  over  the  fine 
mountain  road.  But  this  will  soon  be  a  thing  of  the 
past,  as  a  tunnel  is  fast  penetrating  the  Simplon  in 
a  straight  line  from  Brieg  to  Iselle,  a  small  town  on 
the  upper  waters  of  the  Diveria,  a  tributary  of  the 
river  Toce.  A  new  railway  is  being  built  from  Arona 
up  the  Toce  valley  vid  Domo  D'Ossola,  to  complete 
the  connection  and  provide  a  new  route  from  Paris 
to  Genoa  by  way  of  Dijon,  Portarlier,  and  Lausanne. 

The  Simplon  tunnel  will  have  an  ultimate  length 
of  12 J  miles,  of  which  12  are  on  the  straight,  the 
line  curving  away  at  the  ends  to  join  the  open  tracks. 
At  the  centre  there  will  be  a  level  stretch  of  about 
750  yards.  From  this  the  line  falls  gently  on  a 
gradient  of  i  in  500  to  Baffi,  at  the  Swiss  end ;  and 
by  a  more  sudden  descent  of  i  in  143  to  Iselle  in 
Italy.    The  highest  point  being  but  2314  feet  above 

229 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

sea  level,  or  1474  feet  less  than  in  the  case  of  the 
St.  Gothard,  the  cost  and  difficulty  of  haulage  will 
not  be  nearly  as  great  as  that  of  the  more  easterly 
route,  and  only  one  helical  tunnel — on  the  Italian 
side — is  necessary  for  the  approaches. 

The  Simplon  differs  from  the  Mont  Cenis  and  St. 
Gothard  undertakings  in  that  the  tracks  will  run  in 
separate  parallel  tunnels,  the  axes  of  which  are  56  feet 
apart.  At  present  only  one  of  these  is  being  completed 
to  full  section  (19  feet  6  inches  by  19  feet  6  inches).  The 
other  will  be  enlarged  from  its  temporary  dimensions 
(10  feet  by  8  feet)  as  soon  as  the  need  arises,  at  a  much 
smaller  cost  than  the  first.  Every  220  yards  cross- 
passages  are  cut  between  the  two  tunnels,  the  most 
recent  only  remaining  open  to  promote  the  proper 
ventilation  of  the  workings.  This  subsidiary  work, 
which  for  distinction's  sake  may  be  styled  tunnel 
No.  2,  has  also  proved  most  useful  for  drainage,  the 
storage  of  material,  and  as  a  conduit  for  the  com- 
pressed air  and  water  pipes. 

The  determination  of  the  centre  line  of  so  long 
a  tunnel  running  under  a  series  of  lofty  peaks  is  no 
easy  matter.  It  being  impossible  to  pick  out  a  straight 
line  immediately  over  the  proposed  path  of  the  tunnel, 
mark  it,  and  guide  the  operations  by  observations  of 
these  marks  from  time  to  time,  the  surveyors,  after 
setting  two  fixed  points,  one  at  each  end  of  tunnel 
No.  I,  had  to  calculate  the  path  of  the  excavations 
by  means  of  triangulations  struck  from  eleven  peaks, 
of  which  Monte  Leone  holds  the  central  position. 

230 


The  Simplon  Tunnel 

*'  On  the  top  of  each  summit  is  placed  a  signal,  con- 
sisting of  a  small  pillar  of  masonry  founded  on  rock, 
and  capped  with  a  sharp  pointed  cone  of  zinc,  i  foot 
6  inches  high.  An  observatory  was  built  at  each  end 
of  the  tunnel  in  such  a  position  that  three  of  the 
summits  could  be  seen,  a  condition  very  difficult  to 
fulfil  on  the  south  side  owing  to  the  depth  of  the 
gorge,  the  mountains  on  either  side  being  over  7000 
feet  high.  Having  taken  the  angles  to  and  from  each 
visible  signal,  and  therefrom  having  calculated  the  direc- 
tion of  the  tunnel,  it  was  necessary  to  fix,  with  extreme 
accuracy,  sighting  points  on  the  axis  of  the  tunnel, 
in  order  to  avoid  sighting  on  to  the  surrounding 
peaks  for  each  subsequent  correction  of  the  align- 
ment of  the  galleries.  To  do  this,  a  theodolite 
24  inches  long  and  2f  inches  in  diameter,  with  a 
magnifying  power  of  forty  times,  was  set  up  in  the 
observatory,  and  about  100  readings  were  taken  of 
the  angles  between  the  surrounding  signals  and  the 
required  sighting  points.  Thus,  at  the  north  end  two 
points  were  found  about  550  yards  before  and  behind 
the  observatory,  while  on  the  south  side,  owing  to 
the  narrowness  of  the  gorge,  the  points  could  only 
be  placed  82  yards  and  176  yards  in  front.  One  of 
these  sighting  points  consists  of  a  fine  scratch  ruled 
on  a  glass  in  an  iron  frame,  behind  which  is  placed 
an  acetylene  lamp  —  corrections  of  alignment  are 
always  done  by  night — the  whole  being  rigidly  fixed 
into  a  niche  cut  in  the  rock,  and  protected  from 
climatic  and  other  disturbing  agencies  by  an  iron  plate. 

231 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

'^The  direction  of  heading  No.  i  is  checked  by  ex- 
perts from  the  Government  Survey  Department  at 
Lausanne  about  three  times  a  year,  and  for  this 
purpose  a  transit  instrument  is  set  up  in  the  obser- 
vatory. A  number  of  three-legged  iron  tables  are 
placed  at  intervals  of  i  mile  or  2  miles  along  the  axis 
of  tunnel  No.  i,  and  upon  each  of  these  is  placed  a 
horizontal  plane,  movable  by  means  of  an  adjusting 
screw,  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  along 
a  graduated  scale.  On  this  plane  are  small  sockets, 
into  which  the  legs  of  an  acetylene  lamp  and  screen, 
or  of  the  transit  instrument,  can  be  quickly  and 
accurately  placed.  The  screen  has  a  vertical  slit, 
3  inches  in  height,  and  variable  between  if  inches 
and  -^  inches  in  breadth,  according  to  the  state  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  at  a  distance  shows  a  fine  thread 
of  light.  The  instrument,  having  first  been  sighted 
on  to  the  illuminated  scratch  of  the  sighting  point, 
is  directed  up  the  tunnel,  where  a  thread  of  light  is 
shown  from  the  first  table.  With  the  aid  of  a  tele- 
phone, this  light  is  adjusted  so  that  its  image  is  exactly 
coincident  with  the  cross  hairs,  and  the  reading  on 
the  graduated  scale  is  noted.  This  is  done  four  or 
five  times,  the  average  of  these  readings  being  taken 
as  correct,  and  the  plane  is  clamped  to  that  average. 
The  instrument  is  then  taken  to  the  first  table,  and 
is  placed  quickly  and  accurately  over  the  point  just 
found  (by  means  of  the  sockets),  and  the  lamp  is 
carried  to  the  observatory.  After  first  sighting  back, 
a  second  point  is  given  on  the  second  table,  and  so  on. 

232 


The  Simplon  Tunnel 

These  points  are  marked  either  temporarily  in  the 
roof  of  the  heading  by  a  short  piece  of  cord  hanging 
down,  or  permanently  by  a  brass  point  held  by  a 
small  steel  cylinder,  8  inches  long  and  3  inches  in 
diameter,  embedded  in  concrete  in  the  rock  floor, 
and  protected  by  a  circular  casting,  also  sunk  in 
cement  concrete,  holding  an  iron  cover  resembling 
that  of  a  small  manhole.  From  time  to  time  the 
alignment  is  checked  from  these  points  by  the 
engineers,  and  after  each  blast  the  general  direction 
is  given  by  the  hand  from  the  temporary  points."  ^ 

The  accuracy  of  the  surveyor's  calculations  is  one 
of  the  greatest  marvels  of  modern  engineering.  In 
the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  the  error  was  but  a  matter  of 
I  inch  in  8  miles ;  in  the  St.  Gothard  about  a  foot 
in  9  miles,  quite  negligible  quantities. 

The  contractors,  Messrs.  Brandt,  Brandau  &  Co., 
of  Hamburg,  signed  in  May  1898  the  contract  for  the 
entire  completion  of  the  work  by  May  13,  1904,  or 
within  five  and  a  half  years  of  the  commencement  on 
November  21,  1898.  For  every  day  in  excess  of  that 
period  a  fine  of  5000  francs  (;£20o)  will  be  imposed, 
and  for  every  day  less  the  contractors  earn  a  premium 
of  equal  amount.  Epidemic,  war,  or  mutual  lassitude 
of  Italy  and  Switzerland,  are  fixed  as  the  only  causes 
for  the  cessation  of  work.  Should  the  operations 
continue  for  more  than  a  year  beyond  the  stipulated 
time,  the  contractors  will  hand  over  the  execution  to 
the  Jura-Simplon  Company. 

I  From  "  Tunnelling,"  by  Charles  Prelini  and  Charles  S.  Hill. 
233 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

The  contract  price  is  69,500,000  francs,  or  about 
;£2,78o,ooo. 

The  progress  of  the  tunnel  is  shown  in  the  following 
figures.  In  1898,  out  of  a  total  of  21,564  yards,  447 
were  completed  : — 


By  the  end  of  1899 

4,227  yards 

1900 

7,947      »» 

By  August  1 901       ,        . 

.       10,790     „ 

By  June  1902 

.       13,345      »» 

Since  then  the  rate  of  advance  has  been  steady, 
and  we  may  expect  that,  unless  some  unforeseen 
obstacle  of  unusual  proportions  presents  itself,  the 
work  will  be  successfully  concluded  in  contract 
time. 

A  simple  calculation  shows  that  the  average  advance 
from  November  1898  to  June  1902  was  31  feet  a  day. 
During  part  of  this  period  Sunday  was  considered  a 
dies  non  by  the  workmen ;  and  the  yearly  holidays 
being  also  subtracted  the  average  then  rose  to  33  or 
34  feet  per  diem.  Compare  this  with  the  average  yf 
feet  of  the  Mont  Cenis,  and  the  daily  13J  feet  of  the 
Mount  St.  Gothard,  and  the  rapid  development  of  the 
art  of  tunnelling  is  evident.  In  justice  to  M.  Favre 
we  must,  however,  admit  that  the  total  section  of  the 
two  Simplon  tunnels  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the  single 
St.  Gothard ;  but  even  when  due  allowance  has  been 
made  on  this  head,  the  contrast  in  speed  is  marked. 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  tunnel-driving 
through  mountains  arises  from  the  need  of  proper 

234 


The  Simplon  Tunnel 

ventilation  at  the  working-face.  The  heat  of  a 
tunnel  increases  with  the  altitude  of  the  superin- 
cumbent mass.  At  the  centre  of  the  Simplon,  where 
6000  feet  of  rock  cover  the  workings,  the  heat  would 
be  unendurable  but  for  artificial  means  of  cooling, 
while  the  fumes  from  the  explosives  would  render  the 
air  unfit  for  respiration,  were  it  not  constantly  replaced 
by  fresh  supplies  from  outside  the  tunnel. 

The  plant  for  ventilation  and  transmission  of  power, 
shops,  hospitals,  laundries,  and  other  establishments 
for  the  convenience  of  employes,  are  practically  the 
same  at  BafH  and  Iselle.  It  will  therefore  suffice  to 
describe  what  is  seen  at  the  Italian  end. 

The  first  thing  that  attracts  our  attention  is  the 
power-house,  containing  three  Escher-Wyss  turbines, 
two  of  250  horse-power,  and  one  of  600  horse-power, 
running  at  170  revolutions  per  minute.  To  these 
are  attached  ten  pumps  for  supplying  water  to 
hydraulic  accumulators  at  a  pressure  of  1764  lbs.  to 
the  square  inch.  From  the  accumulators  the  water 
passes  through  4-inch  pipes  up  the  tunnel  to  the 
working-face,  where  it  actuates  six  rock  drills,  to  be 
described  presently. 

It  is  fortunate  for  the  contractor  that  he  can  at  a 
comparatively  small  cost  harness  the  force  of  the 
Diveria  to  his  drills.  The  river  has  been  dammed 
about  2j  miles  above  the  power-house,  and  turned 
into  two  reservoirs  connected  with  the  turbines  by 
large  pipes,  cast-iron  for  the  first  1440  yards,  and  then 
built  up  of  steel  plates  J-inch  thick.     At  the  power- 

235 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

house  the  pressure  of  the  water  is  about  250  lbs.  to 
the  square  inch. 

A  special  pair  of  200  horse-power  turbines  does  all 
the  ventilating  of  the  Italian  excavations.  Each  drives 
a  fan  12 J  feet  in  diameter  and  3  tons  in  weight,  which 
forces  air  through  a  14-inch  pipe  to  the  working-face. 
The  pipe  is  carried  along  close  to  the  roof  of  the 
tunnel,  and  is  added  to  as  the  excavation  proceeds. 

We  notice  the  two  electric-light  stations  each 
supplying  current  for  32  arc  lamps  of  500  candle- 
power,  and  100  i6-candle-power  bulbs.  Passing  the 
machine-tool  shop,  where  are  installed  lathes,  planing 
machines,  saws,  &c. — all  worked  by  turbines — we 
come  to  the  smithy  and  foundry,  a  most  important 
part  of  the  workshop.  Their  principal  function  is  to 
make  and  repair  cutters  for  the  Brandt  borer,  invented 
by  and  named  after  the  contractor.^ 

The  welfare  of  the  employes  has  been  provided  for 
in  the  bath-houses,  where  every  miner  can  have  a 
bath  or  douche  when  he  leaves  the  tunnel  at  the  end 
of  his  shift ;  and  in  the  laundries  and  drying-rooms, 
where  the  dirt  and  moisture  is  removed  from  his 
clothes.  Instead  of  a  locker  each  man  has  a  numbered 
cord  supporting  three  hooks,  and  a  soap  dish,  which, 
when  loaded  with  their  owner's  belongings,  are 
hauled  up  to  the  ceiling  out  of  the  way,  and  into  the 
warm  upper  stratum  of  air.  At  the  restaurants  excel- 
lent food  is  provided  for  the  very  moderate  sum  of 

*  Sad  to  relate,    the  same  fate   overtook  MM.  Favre  and    Brandt — 
death  from  apoplexy  before  the  completion  of  their  great  works. 
.       236 


The  Simplon  Tunnel 

I  id.  a  day  ;  2d.  more  ensures  the  miner  a  comfortable 
bed  in  rooms  lit  by  electric  light.  So  that  his  bodily 
needs  are  well  cared  for. 

Debris  is  removed  from,  and  material  carried  into 
the  tunnel  by  trucks  and  engines  running  on  a  line 
of  3iJ-inch  gauge.  The  engines  are  of  two  types, 
steam  and  hot-air.  The  steamers  have  very  large 
boilers,  so  that  when  steam  is  once  up  they  may 
make  the  journey  to  and  from  the  working  face 
without  any  need  for  stoking,  and  the  consequent 
fouling  of  the  atmosphere.  Their  height  to  the  top 
of  the  boiler  is  but  6  feet  6J  inches  ;  and  the  short 
14-inch  funnel  is  provided  with  a  hinge  for  lowering 
it  in  confined  spaces. 

The  air  locomotives  are  used  chiefly  in  the  head- 
ings. Their  freedom  from  fire  and  steam  fits  them 
for  haulage  in  the  farthest  interior,  where  coolness 
is  of  great  importance.  The  compressed  air,  driving 
a  single  cylinder  that  actuates  the  2-foot  road  wheels 
through  intermediate  gearing,  is  stored  in  27  cylinders, 
at  a  pressure  of  1030  lbs.  to  the  square  inch  ;  the 
supply  being  renewed  when  necessary  from  an  air- 
valve  situated  if  miles  from  the  entrance,  and 
connected  by  piping  with  compressors  at  the  power- 
station. 

For  the  following  description  of  the  southern  or 
Italian  end  of  the  excavation,  the  writer  is  largely 
indebted  to  an  account  that  appeared  in  the  columns 
of  The  Engineer, 

The  men  work  in  three  shifts  of  eight  hours  each. 
237 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Their  day  is  reckoned,  Jewish  fashion,  from  6  P.M. 
till  6  P.M.  Seven  days  a  week  the  operations  go 
on,  as  soon  as  the  boundary  line  between  the  two 
countries  has  been  passed ;  for  the  Italian  workmen, 
who  obey  their  priests  in  the  matter  of  Sabbath 
keeping  while  in  Italy,  declare  that  they  "have  no 
religion"  when  once  they  enter  Switzerland.  "This 
is  the  only  blot  on  the  undertaking,  for,  in  the  opinion 
of  tunnel  experts,  no  loss  of  time,  but  rather  gain, 
is  secured  by  allowing  men,  horses,  and  machinery 
to  rest  for  the  one  day  in  seven.  As  it  is,  work  goes 
on  incessantly  from  one  year's  end  to  another,  with 
the  exception  of  four  or  five  days  which  are  particular 
feasts,  or  are  days  on  which  the  special  Government 
engineers  appointed  for  verifying  the  axis  of  the 
tunnel  require  cessation  of  work  for  getting  their 
lines  into  the  tunnels  from  their  telescopes  and 
theodolites."  ^ 

The  men  are  encouraged  to  exert  themselves  by  a 
system  of  premiums.  Each  gang  benefits  by  any 
daily  advance  over  the  average.  The  work  is  so 
unpleasant  and  exhausting,  that  but  for  some  such 
arrangement  there  would  be  flagging,  with  loss  to 
the  contractors. 

Trains,  running  to  a  regular  time-table,  convey 
men  and  materials  in  and  out  of  the  tunnel  about 
30  times  a  day ;  punctuality  in  starting  and  arrival 
being  strictly  observed. 

The  air  at  the  entrance  is  described  by  a  visitor  as  a 

^  The  Times y  August  29,  1901. 
238 


The  Simplon  Tunnel 

more  sulphurous  edition  of  that  of  the  London 
MetropoHtan  Railway.  As  the  "  face  "  is  approached 
the  temperature  falls,  until  we  enter  the  comparative 
comfort  of  the  fresh-air  supply.  The  tunnel  is  well 
lined  with  Antigorio  gneiss,  the  spoil  of  the  excava- 
tions. Every  loo  metres  a  *' refuge"  is  let  into  the 
south-west  wall,  and  at  every  looo  metres  small  cellars 
have  been  constructed  for  the  storage  of  supplies 
and  signalling  apparatus. 

At  the  ^'tunnel  station"  passengers  quit  the  train, 
and  proceed  on  foot  to  the  scene  of  excavation, 
where  springs  of  water  are  unpleasantly  in  evidence. 
The  temperature  of  these  inflows  shows  that  they 
are  due  to  leakage  from  the  surface,  and  not  to 
the  proximity  of  a  subterranean  reservoir.  On  the 
Italian  side  of  the  mountain  the  first  4350  metres 
pierced  were  through  gneiss,  hard  but  comparatively 
free  from  moisture.  Then  followed  a  short  section — 
40  metres  long — of  micaceous  schist,  that  has  proved 
to  the  contractors  much  what  the  Great  Spring  was 
to  Mr.  Walker  in  the  Severn  Tunnel. 

The  schist,  being  softer  than  the  rock,  is  squeezed 
into  any  excavation  piercing  it.  So  great  was  the 
pressure  that  timbers  16  inches  square,  packed  closely 
together,  broke  up  like  matchwood,  and  blocked  the 
boring.  After  six  months  of  hard  work  the  engineers 
succeeded  in  replacing  the  wooden  with  iron  frames 
formed  of  girders  15!  inches  deep,  6 J  inches  wide 
across  the  flanges,  and  f  inch  thick  in  the  plates. 
Stout    timbers  bolted  to   each    side    of   the   frames 

239 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

greatly  increased  their  strength.  In  the  first  portion 
of  the  "fault,"  32  frames  were  placed  contiguously; 
but  in  the  farther  part  spaces  of  16  to  48  inches, 
filled  in  with  concrete,  separated  them  according  to 
the  plasticity  of  the  schist. 

The  difficulty  of  erecting  these  frames  was,  as  may 
be  imagined,  very  great,  at  one  time  apparently  in- 
surmountable, if  the  engineer's  vocabulary  admits 
such  a  word.  The  delay,  in  addition  to  the  extra 
work,  entailed  a  great  increase  of  speed  in  the  boring 
beyond,  where  the  rock  is  more  amenable,  to  make 
up  for  lost  time. 

The  frames  allow  an  internal  passage,  8  feet  2 
inches  by  9  feet  2  inches.  The  material  all  round 
them  had  to  be  cleared  away  for  a  generous  distance 
to  admit  an  unusually  thick  hning  of  masonry.  The 
removal  of  the  schist  has  proved  a  very  tedious 
business,  since  care  must  be  taken  not  to  leave  the 
frames  unsupported  for  more  than  a  few  feet  at  any 
one  place. 

Excavation  commenced  by  cutting  a  hole  through 
one  of  the  side  posts  sufficiently  large  to  pass  work- 
men and  materials.  The  men  chiselled  a  short  shaft 
downwards,  and  then  drove  a  heading  under  the 
base  of  the  frame  to  the  centre  line,  and  the  half 
of  the  invert  (or  arch  with  the  concave  side  upwards, 
of  gentler  curvature  than  the  tunnel  roof)  was  built 
in.  Meanwhile  other  hands  tunnelled  below  the 
farther  side  of  the  frame  ;  and  when  they  too  reached 
the  centre  line,  and  put  in  their  half  of  the  masonry, 

240 


The  Simplon  Tunnel 

a  section  of  the  tunnel  bottom  was  finished.  The 
work  proceeded  after  this  manner  in  rings  a  few 
feet  apart. 

The  sides  and  upper  arch  have  next  to  be  dealt 
with.  It  has  been  proposed  to  build  these  in  when 
the  interval  between  the  outside  of  the  frames  and 
the  inner  side  of  the  tunnel  lining  has  been  cleared 
and  filled  with  temporary  masonry,  which  will  serve 
as  a  support  for  the  timbering  in  the  space  actually 
occupied  by  the  lining.  The  completion  of  this  short 
length  will  probably  require  a  total  of  nearly  two 
years'  work. 

It  was  found  impossible  to  drive  the  smaller  tunnel 
forward  through  the  fault,  so  the  engineers  abandoned 
No.  2  heading  for  a  time,  and  when  No.  i  heading 
was  lined,  cut  a  cross  passage  and  burrowed  back- 
wards. 

At  the  working  face  three  Brandt  hydraulic  drills, 
mounted  on  a  beam  wedged  across  the  heading,  are 
eating  holes  into  the  rock  for  the  reception  of  the 
blasting  charges. 

A  short  description  of  these  drills  is  pertinent,  as 
they  have  played  so  important  a  part  in  the  excava- 
tion. On  the  Mont  Cenis  and  St.  Gothard  tunnels 
the  holes  were  bored  by  percussion  air-drills,  making 
200  strokes  a  minute.  During  the  driving  of  the 
Arlberg  Tunnel  (1880-1884)  a  trial  was  given  to 
Brandt's  invention,  which  revolves  a  hollow  cutter, 
2|  to  3J  inches  in  diameter,  held  against  the  face  of 
the  rock  by  an  hydraulic  ram  exerting  a  pressure  of 

241  Q 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

about  10  tons.  A  couple  of  small  cylinders  drive  the 
mandrel  holding  the  cutter  through  worm  gearing, 
and  the  exhaust  water  issuing  from  them  is  shot  up 
the  centre  of  the  drill,  serving  the  double  purpose 
of  cooling  the  metal  and  removing  the  detritus. 

The  severity  of  the  work  soon  wears  down  the  three 
fangs  at  the  cutting-edge,  which  must  be  re-formed  in 
the  smithy,  where  300  to  500  cutters  are  treated  daily, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  stratum  encountered, 
and  in  addition  1000  to  3000  hand  chisels. 

The  drills  are  tended  by  fourteen  or  fifteen  of  the 
smartest  miners,  capable  of  sustained  work  under 
most  trying  conditions,  and  supervised  by  a  foreman 
and  engineer.  The  slowly  revolving  cutters  having 
made  eleven  holes  3  feet  3  inches  to  4  feet  7  inches 
deep  in  the  face,  the  drill  beam  is  twisted  round  on  its 
truck  and  run  into  a  place  of  safety.  Then  the  dyna- 
mite truck  advances  with  its  deadly  load.  Special 
workmen  place  6  lbs.  of  explosive  into  each  hole, 
fix  the  detonators  and  fuses,  and  ram  in  fine  borings 
behind  as  "tamping."  When  all  is  ready  the  fuses 
are  lit,  and  every  one  quickly  withdraws  into  shelter. 
From  their  refuge  the  men  count  the  reports,  which 
are  accompanied  by  a  violent  rush  of  air  and  dense 
fumes.  The  last  are  precipitated  by  jets  of  water  from 
the  high-pressure  hydraulic  main,  let  loose  after  each 
explosion. 

Ten  minutes  having  elapsed  since  the  last  discharge, 
the  men  return  to  the  heading  to  pile  the  debris  into 
trucks,  which  are  hauled  out  by  small  ponies  to  the 

242 


The  Simplon  Tunnel 

air-locomotives,  which  pass  them  on  to  the  steamers. 
Each  '*  Hft,"  or  advance,  of  the  drills  removes  264  cubic 
feet  of  rock.  In  hard  rock  only  three  or  four  lifts  are 
made  a  day,  but  in  soft  the  number  rises  to  eight 
or  ten. 

The  general  method  of  clearing  out  the  workings  to 
full  section  is  similar  to  that  already  described  in 
connection  with  the  Severn  Tunnel.  The  blasted 
passage  serves  as  the  lower  heading,  from  which 
shafts  are  chiselled  upwards  to  the  elevation  of  the 
tunnel  crown,  to  act  as  starting-points  for  the  upper 
galleries.  As  soon  as  the  arch  has  been  quarried  out, 
the  floor  separating  the  two  headings  is  cut  away,  and 
the  lower  portion  enlarged.  Wherever  necessary,  an 
elaborate  system  of  timbering  insures  the  safety  of 
the  workmen,  and  prevents  the  caving-in  of  the  sides. 
The  masons  follow  hard  behind  the  excavators,  and 
put  in  the  lining  of  stone. 

When  the  tunnel  is  completed,  special  attention  will 
be  paid  to  its  ventilation.  At  Brieg  and  Iselle  the 
entrances  are  to  be  provided  with  stout  curtains  to 
turn  the  air  from  one  tunnel  to  the  other  through  a 
cross  passage  at  the  extremities.  Air  forced  in  from 
Brieg  will  travel  to  Iselle  through  one  tunnel  and  return 
through  the  other.  The  same  effects  will  result  from 
suction.  The  curtains  are  of  a  material  which  will 
not  offer  sufficient  resistance  to  damage  a  train,  if  by 
accident  they  are  not  removed  in  time  for  its  transit. 

Marseilles  is  a  long  way  from  the  Simplon,  yet  the 
Marseillais  will  feel  the  effects  of  the  tunnel.     On  the 

243 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

opening  of  the  Mont  Cenis  route,  the  eastern  mail 
services  were  transferred  from  Marseilles  to  Brindisi, 
and  passengers  also  largely  used  the  same  means  of 
shortening  the  journey  to  India.  Another  serious 
blow  at  the  prosperity  of  the  great  southern  French 
port  was  struck  by  the  St.  Gothard  tunnel,  which 
places  Bale  135  miles  nearer  an  important  harbour 
(Genoa)  than  it  is  to  Marseilles.  Consequently,  all  the 
merchandise  sent  from  England,  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  German  Switzerland  now  goes  to  Genoa  by  rail 
for  shipment  to  the  Mediterranean  sea-board.  The 
completion  of  the  Simplon  project  will  still  further 
increase  the  commercial  importance  of  Genoa  at  the 
expense  of  Marseilles ;  and  the  position  has  become 
so  serious  that  plans  have  been  proposed  for  connect- 
ing the  latter  town  with  the  Rhone  at  Bras  Mort  by 
a  canal  34  miles  long,  skirting  the  Gulf  of  Lyons  for 
part  of  its  course.  The  work  is  estimated  to  cost 
8,000,000  francs. 

A  canal  20  feet  deep  would  enable  vessels  of  looo-tons 
displacement  to  reach  points  300  miles  up  the  river  ; 
and  if  the  cargoes  were  transhipped  to  300-ton  barges, 
they  could  pass  over  the  existing  system  of  internal 
waterways  to  Nancy,  Paris,  Havre,  and  Lille.  The 
cost  of  water  transport  being  but  one-half  of  that  by 
rail,  especially  in  the  case  of  heavy  merchandise  such 
as  coal  and  other  minerals,  Marseilles  may  win  back 
to  herself  much  of  the  traffic  that  has  been  diverted 
by  the  far-away  tunnels  in  the  Alps. 


244 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  MANCHESTER   SHIP  CANAL 

A  STRANGER  dropped  suddenly  among  the  quays  and 
wharves  of  Manchester,  seeing  around  him  great  ships 
upwards  of  9000-tons  burden,  great  cranes  unloading 
cargoes,  and  hundreds  of  waggons  and  railway  trucks 
receiving  the  same  from  towering  warehouses,  would 
at  once  exclaim,  ^*  Surely  this  is  not  far  from  the  salt 
sea  waves ! "  and  might  imagine  that  the  breezes 
rippling  the  broad  expanse  of  water  before  him  are 
blowing  fresh  from  the  open  ocean.  But  let  him 
board  yonder  vessel  just  casting  off  her  moorings  for 
an  outward  voyage,  and  follow  her  fortunes  for  a  few 
hours,  and  he  will  understand  that  the  road  to  the 
true  home  of  all  this  shipping  is  a  long  one,  and  that 
Manchester  has  lured  these  shapely  masts  and  smok- 
ing funnels  far  into  the  heart  of  Old  England  by  a 
waterway  that  stands  among  the  foremost  of  the 
world's  engineering  romances. 

Let  us  accompany  our  passenger,  and  through 
paper  and  ink  see  what  he  sees. 

As  we  pass  by  the  long  wharves  lining  the  water, 
the  channel  gradually  contracts  to  a  width  of  some 
250  feet,  but  widens  to  400  as  we  approach  the  Mode 
Wheel  Locks.     These  are  two  in  number,  the  one  600 

245 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

feet  long  by  65  broad,  the  other  350  feet  by  45.  Our 
vessel  enters  the  smaller,  and  in  five  minutes  has 
descended  13  feet  towards  sea  level.  We  proceed  for 
2j  miles,  over  what  was  once  the  bed  of  the  Irwell, 
until  our  attention  is  arrested  by  a  curious  sight — a 
barge  borne  aloft  in  mid-air  in  a  gigantic  iron  trough, 
known  as  the  Barton  Swing  Aqueduct.  How  did  the 
barge  get  there  ?  Look  to  left  and  right  and  you 
behold,  far  above  the  canal  level,  two  iron  gates. 
Behind  these  the  Bridgewater  Canal  is  pent,  while  a 
section  of  it  is  calmly  swung  round  —  also  enclosed 
by  shutters  at  each  end — with  its  floating  freight,  that 
we  may  pass.  As  we  drop  into  Barton  Lock,  the 
hydraulic  machinery  on  the  mid-channel  pier  slowly 
brings  the  trough  athwart  our  pathway,  and  in  a  few 
minutes  the  bargeman  is  urging  on  his  horses  en  route 
to  Worsley. 

The  country  north  and  south  of  us  is  studded  with 
the  numerous  towns  that  make  this  the  most  thickly- 
populated  district  of  England.  Had  we  but  ears  to 
hear,  the  whirr  of  innumerable  spindles  would  speak 
to  us  of  the  great  cotton  industry  of  which  Manchester 
is  the  heart ;  and  into  which  the  Canal  is  pouring  the 
life-blood  of  commerce,  to  be  distributed  by  the  lesser 
arteries  and  veins  of  waterway  and  railroad. 

A  few  miles,  and  we  slow  up  once  more  for  the 
passage  of  Irlam  Lock,  which  lowers  us  another  16 
feet ;  and  when  freed  we  pass  under  a  great  railway 
bridge,  and  note  on  our  left  the  entrance  of  the 
Mersey  into  the  Canal.     Our  voyage  is  unbroken  for 

246 


The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 

7  miles.  Inland-bound  vessels  pass  us  at  a  stately 
pace  of  5  to  8  miles  an  hour.  There  is  no  need  to 
make  for  a  **  siding  "  to  give  the  other  room,  as  the 
Canal  has  a  generous  width — i2o  feet  at  bottom,  in- 
creasing to  nearly  double  near  the  locks.  At  Rixton 
Junction  the  Canal  leaves  the  river-bed,  and  becomes 
purely  artificial  for  the  remaining  24  miles  of  its 
length.  At  Latchford,  14J  miles  from  Manchester, 
we  again  enter  a  lock,  and  drop  from  (comparatively) 
fresh  into  salt  water,  for  at  certain  states  of  the  tide  no 
barrier  is  interposed  between  Latchford  and  the  sea. 
We  are  now  60  feet  lower  than  our  starting-point, 
having  descended  in  four  bold  steps. 

Sailing  with  a  straight  course,  we  come  to  Run- 
corn, an  important  town  on  the  now  broadening 
Mersey.  The  river  is  within  a  stone's-throw  of  our 
boat,  but  it  will  be  a  long  time  yet  before  we  enter 
its  waters.  The  canal  now  makes  two  sweeps,  the 
first  southwards  from  Runcorn,  the  second  gradually 
northwards  along  the  southern  bank,  behind  great 
embankments  dividing  the  Canal  from  the  river. 
Eastham  reached,  we  pass  the  open  lock — for  the 
tide  is  up — and  pass  out  into  the  Mersey  at  a  point 
35J  miles  from  the  great  cotton  town. 

We  may  now  glance  at  the  history  of  this  under- 
taking. 

As  early  as  1721,  the  necessity  for  efficient  water 
communication  between  Manchester  and  Liverpool — 
then  a  rising  port- — caused  Mr.  Thomas  Steers,  an 
engineer  of  repute,  to  issue  plans  for  canalising  the 

247 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Mersey  and  I r well  from  Warrington — to  which  small 
vessels  ascended  on  the  tideway — to  Manchester, 
His  scheme  was  carried  out  and  subsequently  ex- 
tended, to  compete  with  the  Bridgewater  Canal, 
which  united  Manchester  with  the  Mersey  at  Runcorn. 
The  canal  then  absorbed  the  "  Mersey  and  Irwell 
Navigation  "  in  1844,  and  the  two  became  formidable 
rivals  to  the  railways ;  and  finally,  in  1886,  both  were 
transferred  to  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal  Company 
for  the  sum  of  ;£i,7i2,ooo — a  sufficient  proof  of  their 
importance. 

The  first  scheme  for  constructing  a  ship  canal  was 
mooted  in  1825,  when  a  Company  was  formed  to 
unite  Manchester  with  the  Dee  by  a  canal  51  miles 
long,  containing  fourteen  locks.  It  came  to  nothing, 
however,  sharing  the  fate  of  two  later  proposals,  the 
second  of  which  deserves  short  notice.  In  1840 
Mr.  Henry  Palmer  drew  up  a  plan  for  the  Mersey 
and  Irwell  Navigation  Company  for  deepening  the 
existing  waterway  sufficiently  to  pass  vessels  of  400- 
tons  burthen  to  Manchester.  By  means  of  training- 
walls  built  in  the  river  above  Runcorn  he  thought  the 
concentrated  scour  of  the  tides  might  be  compelled 
to  keep  open  a  channel  with  a  minimum  depth  of 
10  feet.  Locks  and  weirs  would  be  established  in  the 
upper  river  ;  so  that  ships  of  the  size  mentioned  could 
all  reach  Manchester  except  those  with  fixed  masts, 
which  would  be  compelled  to  discharge  cargo  at 
Barton,  where  the  Bridgewater  Aqueduct  crossed  the 
course. 

248 


The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 

In  1882  the  question  was  again  taken  up,  this  time 
with  great  energy.  Seventy  leading  Manchester  mer- 
chants and  manufacturers  instituted  surveys  and  re- 
ports on  the  "  feasibility  of  constructing  a  navigation 
to  Manchester  available  for  ocean-going  vessels."  Mr. 
H.  H.  Fulton  and  Sir  E.  Leader  Williams  undertook 
the  surveys.  The  former  was  in  favour  of  a  tidal 
canal  all  the  way  to  Manchester,  where  the  rise  of 
the  country  would  necessitate  a  basin  90  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  town.  His  colleague,  however,  spoke 
for  a  locked  canal  above  Runcorn,  on  the  grounds 
that  the  cost  of  excavation  would  be  far  less,  and  that 
the  presence  of  locks  would  convert  the  river  into  a 
series  of  practically  still-water  pounds. 

The  latter  plan  was  accepted  by  the  Company, 
which  in  1883  introduced  a  Bill  into  Parliament  for 
constructive  powers,  but  the  application  was  thrown 
out  by  the  House  of  Lords  after  passing  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Commons.  When  introduced 
again  the  following  year,  the  Lower  House  in  turn 
rejected  it;  but  on  a  third  attempt  in  1885  the  Com- 
pany gained  its  end  after  the  costs  of  introduction 
and  opposition  had  amounted  to  ^^250,000. 

The  Committees  left  their  mark  on  the  Bill,  how- 
ever, for  the  Act  demanded  that  for  the  training- walls 
in  the  Mersey  should  be  substituted  a  semi-tidal  canal 
along  the  Cheshire  side  of  the  estuary,  entering  the 
Mersey  at  Eastham,  6  miles  above  Liverpool,  whence 
a  good  low-water  channel  led  to  the  deep  waters. 

After  some  hesitation  on  the  part  of  Lancashire 
249 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

financiers,  the  necessary  capital  was  subscribed,  and 
the  late  Mr.  T.  A.  Walker,  of  Severn  Tunnel  fame, 
obtained  the  contract  for  ;^5,75o,ooo.  On  November 
II,  1887,  the  first  sod  was  cut  at  Eastham.  On  May 
21,  1894,  the  late  Queen  Victoria  formally  declared 
the  whole  Canal  open  to  traffic. 

This  titanic  work  necessitated  the  excavation  of  54 
million  cubic  yards,  nearly  a  quarter  of  which  was 
sandstone  rock.  At  the  busiest  period  17,000  men 
were  engaged,  aided  by  80  steam  navvies  and  dredgers, 
316  steam  engines  and  cranes,  173  locomotives,  and 
6300  waggons  and  trucks  running  on  228  miles  of 
temporary  railway,  the  value  of  which  plant  ap- 
proached a  million  sterling.  The  cost  of  the  canal, 
including  construction  of  works,  the  purchase  of 
lands  (;£i, 289,000),  purchase  of  canals  (;£i,786,773), 
parliamentary  expenses,  general  expenses,  surveying, 
&c.,  amounted  on  January  i,  1897,  to  the  huge  total 
of  ;£i5,i68,795,  15s.  I  id.,  a  sum  greatly  in  excess  of 
what  the  promoters  had  originally  contemplated.  It 
must  be  mentioned,  however,  that  as  the  work  pro- 
gressed, the  scheme  enlarged  itself  in  the  direction 
of  greater  dock  and  warehouse  accommodation,  &c. 
The  untimely  death  of  Mr.  Walker  in  1889,  by 
throwing  the  contract  on  to  the  Company,  involved 
it  in  considerable  loss. 

As  often  happens  in  great  engineering  feats,  the 
**  unknown  quantity  "  of  unforeseen  natural  obstacles, 
such  as  faults  in  the  strata  excavated,  and  heavy 
floods,  pressed  hard  upon  the  contractors  and  pro- 

250 


The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 

moters.  In  1890  and  1891  winter  floods  worked 
great  havoc  with  the  cuttings.  One  cutting,  in  the 
Irlam  division,  was  almost  completed  when  the 
natural  dam  at  the  Manchester  end,  shutting  it  off 
from  the  river,  suddenly  gave  way  under  the  pressure 
of  the  spate,  and  in  ten  minutes  over  250  million 
gallons  of  water  had  rushed  into  the  cavity,  bearing 
with  it  more  than  100,000  cubic  yards  of  material. 
When  the  water  had  been  pumped  out,  under  cover 
of  a  new  dam,  trains  of  waggons  were  found  tied  up 
in  knots,  and  heavy  machinery  scattered  far  and  wide. 
During  the  two  years  mentioned,  no  less  than  twenty- 
three  miles  of  cuttings  were  filled  prematurely  by 
water,  which  had,  of  course,  to  be  pumped  out  before 
work  could  proceed. 

Retracing  the  course  of  the  canal,  we  will  remark 
upon  its  most  noticeable  engineering  features. 

Throughout  its  length  excavation  was  needed,  but 
in  varying  degrees.  From  Eastham  to  Runcorn,  the 
level  of  the  estuary  at  high  tide  being  equal  to,  or 
greater  than,  that  of  the  mean  level  of  the  Canal, 
embankments  were  necessary  for  long  stretches. 
Between  Runcorn  and  Latchford,  where  tidal  action 
ends,  the  Canal  leaves  the  river  and  enters  higher 
ground,  necessitating  cuttings  from  70  to  40  feet 
deep.  From  Latchford  to  the  junction  with  the 
Mersey  again  the  cutting  is  continued,  but  from  the 
latter  point  to  the  confluence  with  the  I  r well  embank- 
ments once  more  are  employed  to  keep  in  the  water. 
The  upper  reaches   of    the    Irwell   required  further 

251 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

cuttings  30  to  40  feet  deep.  The  depth  of  water  is 
kept  by  the  locks  at  26  feet  throughout,  the  gates 
at  Eastham  being  closed  as  soon  as  the  tide  level 
of  the  estuary  has  fallen  to  that  height  above  the 
bottom  of  the  Canal.  During  the  flow  of  the  spring 
tides,  the  opened  gates  permit  a  greater  depth  up  to 
Latchford.  A  peculiar  feature  of  the  Canal  is  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  tides  work  up  to  Latchford, 
where,  at  high  spring  tides,  the  level  is  raised  to 
9J  feet  above  normal  about  half-an-hour  after  high 
tide  at  Eastham,  21  miles  farther  down.  Within 
2j  hours  of  high  water  at  Latchford  all  this  extra 
volume  has  again  left  the  Canal.  The  result  is  a 
strong  current,  which  in  turn  entails  the  lining  of  the 
Canal  side  with  stone  facings,  which  have  also  to 
withstand  the  scouring  action  of  a  ship's  wash.  The 
latter  consideration  has  indeed  made  such  a  protection 
necessary  throughout  the  Canal,  except  in  a  few  places 
where  natural  rock  is  met  with  of  a  sufficient  height. 

In  the  Eastham  division  of  the  Canal  three  large 
embankments  were  made,  known  as  the  Pool  Hall, 
Ellesmere  Port,  and  Ince  Bay  embankments.  The 
method  generally  employed  was  to  tip  two  parallel 
mounds  of  rubble  on  the  foreshore  to  act  as  toes,  or 
supports,  for  the  lower  edges  of  the  embankment 
slopes,  and  then  pile  between  them  mounds  of  stiff  clay. 

At  some  points  the  engineers  encountered  great 
difficulties,  owing  to  the  pressure  of  a  substratum  of 
mud  or  sand  through  which  the  estuary  water  forced 
its  way  to  the  workings.     In  Ellesmere  Bay  especially, 


The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 

for  a  distance  of  il  miles,  a  particularly  staunch  pro- 
tection was  needed,  for  although  at  that  time  the 
deep  channel  of  the  Mersey  lay  on  the  north  side  of 
the  river  estuary,  it  had  formerly  passed  close  to  the 
southern  bank,  and  might  return  thither  again. 
Accordingly  for  5400  feet,  two  parallel  rows  of  piles, 
I  foot  square  and  35  feet  long,  were  driven  down 
contiguously  into  the  sand  so  as  to  form  two  wooden 
walls  78  feet  apart,  the  summits  of  which  were  at  the 
bottom  of  the  embankment.  To  make  these  sub- 
terranean walls  the  more  secure,  two  additional  rows 
of  piles — shorter,  and  6  feet  apart — were  sunk  to  the 
same  level  at  distances  of  20  feet  from  the  inner  row, 
and  25  feet  from  the  outer  row,  and  anchored  to  the 
sheet  piling  by  stout  cross  timbers. 

The  driving  of  these  piles,  which  represent  a  total 
length  of  100  miles  of  foot  -  square  balks,  would 
have  been  practically  impossible,  not  to  say  ruin- 
ously expensive,  had  force  only  been  used.  Recourse 
was  therefore  had  to  the  erosive  action  of  the  water- 
jet,  a  device  that  has  proved  of  immense  use  in  many 
undertakings.  A  jet  of  high-pressure  water  was 
pumped  by  steam-engines  through  a  pipe  of  ij  inch 
bore  and  40  feet  long,  which  preceded  the  pile  in  its 
downward  course,  softening  and  loosening  the  sand 
to  such  a  degree  that  the  pile  easily  pierced  the 
stratum.  Twenty-one  pile-drivers  were  kept  at  work, 
the  best  week's  record  being  554  piles  sunk  into 
place. 

As  the  rows  lengthened  a  trench  15  feet  deep  was 
253 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

excavated  behind  the  piles  for  an  average  v^idth  of 
12  feet,  and  immediately  filled  in  with  rubble  and 
clay  in  equal  amounts.  This  gave  a  firm  and  water- 
tight foundation  for  the  superimposed  embankment. 
At  intervals  cross  dams  were  built  from  side  to  side 
of  the  Canal,  so  that  the  failure  of  one  part  of  the 
embankment  should  not  flood  the  whole  of  the  works. 

Just  below  Runcorn  lock  a  concrete  wall,  4300 
feet  long,  is  substituted  for  earthwork.  The  wall  is 
founded  upon  sandstone  rock  at  its  extremities,  its 
central  portion  resting  on  gravel.  It  has  a  bottom 
breadth  of  22  feet,  tapering  to  16  feet  at  the  summit, 
which  is  about  40  feet  above  the  foundation.  The 
vertical  side  facing  the  Canal  is  protected  from  damage 
by  timber  fenders.  This  wall  is  in  itself  a  large  and 
costly  piece  of  construction. 

So  well  have  the  engineers  done  their" work,  that 
after  several  years  the  walls  remain  staunch  and 
sound,  in  spite  of  severe  storms. 

Some  of  the  most  difficult  portions  of  the  Canal  are 
included  in  the  Irlam  division,  which  extends  from 
the  twenty-sixth  to  the  thirtieth  milestone  above  East- 
ham.  The  cutting  here  is  deep,  and,  as  the  line  of  the 
Canal  crosses  the  beds  of  the  Mersey  and  Irwell  many 
times,  construction  proceeded  in  short  lengths  across 
the  bends,  the  river  being  allowed  to  pursue  its 
natural  course  until  each  chord  was  completed.  The 
dams  at  either  side  were  then  cut  and  the  arc  of  river 
turned  into  the  artificial  channel,  the  dried  bed  being 
filled  in  with  the  spoil  of  the  excavations. 

254 


The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 

The  strata  of  blue  clay,  gravel,  and  alluvial  deposit 
were  of  such  a  nature  as  to  cause  the  sides  of  the 
cuttings  to  fall  in  and  sometimes  entirely  bury  the 
steam-navvies  and  other  plant  employed  in  excava- 
tion. At  one  place  a  "  slip  "  was  burnt  and  replaced 
in  the  hole  made  by  its  subsidence,  but,  as  a  rule, 
the  slipped  material  was  cleared  away  and  lumps 
of  rock  and  quarry  rubbish  substituted. 

Most  of  the  excavating  was  done  by  steam-navvies 
of  English,  French,  and  German  design.  The  Eng- 
lish machine  is  stationed  in  the  bottom  of  a  cutting, 
and  works  a  great  ladle  attached  to  the  end  of  a 
beam,  scraping  up  the  side  of  the  cutting  until  the 
ladle  is  filled  with  its  load  of  i  to  2  tons  of  material. 
The  arm  then  swings  round  and  deposits  the  spoil 
into  a  truck.  The  foreign  patterns  resemble  ordinary 
marine  or  river  dredges,  the  earth,  &c.,  being  collected 
by  an  endless  chain  of  small  buckets  working  round 
a  boom  which  is  gradually  lowered  into  the  hollow 
eaten  out  by  the  buckets.  The  French  navvies  proved 
particularly  useful  in  light  soil  or  soft  clay.  The 
English  make  would  deal  with  ail  sorts  of  material, 
including  blasted  rock,  which  defied  the  other  types. 
Apart  from  the  dry  excavating  these  machines  were 
serviceable,  as  the  English  navvy  could  be  easily  con- 
verted into  a  1 0-ton  crane  by  the  removal  of  the  ladle, 
while  a  slight  alteration  of  the  French  excavator  fitted 
it  for  work  under  water. 

Thanks  to  these  powerful  allies  the  rate  of  excava- 
tion attained   250,000  cubic  yards   a   month   in   the 

255 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Irlam  division  alone.  Even  when  rock  was  handled 
the  total  for  the  same  period  reached  100,000  cubic 
yards. 

In  several  places  the  excavated  material  was  used 
in  the  deviations  constructed  to  carry  the  railroads 
that  cross  the  Canal  at  various  points.  The  interrup- 
tion to  passenger  traffic  would  have  been  so  great  had 
opening  bridges  been  employed  that  the  Canal  Com- 
pany adopted  high-level  viaducts,  the  under  side  of 
which  was  75  feet  above  the  level  of  the  canal. 
In  order  to  preserve  a  gradient  not  exceeding  i  in 
135,  embankments  of  great  length  were  unavoidable, 
and  their  construction  cost  the  Company  no  less'than 
^875,000.  There  are  four  railroad  deviations  ;  one  at 
Warrington  to  carry  the  London  and  North  Western, 
and  Grand  Junction  lines;  another  at  Latchford  for 
the  Warrington  and  Stockport  Railway;  a  third  at 
Irlam  ;  and  a  fourth  at  Cadishead  ;  the  two  last  for 
the  Cheshire  lines.  The  girders  spanning  the  Canal 
vary  in  length  from  150  to  300  feet  according  to  the 
angle  of  their  crossing. 

Nine  important  high-roads  had  also  to  be  given  a 
passage.  At  Warburton  and  Latchford  small  editions 
of  the  Forth  Bridge  afford  a  permanent  means  of 
communication  at  the  same  height  as  the  railway 
viaducts.  The  remaining  seven  are  swing  bridges, 
revolving  on  masonry  pillars,  with  spans  ranging 
from  75  to  140  feet.  The  Moore  Lane  Bridge  may 
be  taken  as  typical.  It  is  238  feet  from  end  to  end 
of  the  span,  the  longer  arm  240,  the  shorter  98  in 

256 


The   Manchester  Ship  Canal 

length.  The  main  girders  are  27  feet  8  inches  deep 
at  the  centre,  diminishing  to  6  feet  and  8  feet  9J 
inches  at  the  extremities  of  the  arms.  These  girders 
rest  on  a  square  of  cross  girders,  attached  to  the 
upper  roller-path.  A  live  ring  carrying  64  conical 
rollers  separates  this  from  the  lower  roller-path  on 
the  top  of  the  masonry  pier.  The  whole  is  swung 
round  by  hydraulic  machinery. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  the  Canal  is  un- 
doubtedly the  Barton  Swing  Aqueduct,  to  which 
allusion  has  already  been  made.  The  Bridgewater 
Canal,  built  in  the  eighteenth  century  for  the  Duke  of 
that  name  by  the  famous  Brindley,  connected  the 
Worsley  coalfields  with  Manchester,  and  subsequently 
Manchester  with  Liverpool.  The  Canal  was,  and  is, 
considered  a  wonderful  feat  on  account  of  the  bold 
project,  successfully  carried  out,  of  its  engineer  to  keep 
it  absolutely  free  of  locks  into  Manchester  by  raising 
embankments  and  viaducts,  and  cutting  tunnels  wher- 
ever the  ground  level  fell  away  or  natural  obstacles 
intervened.  To  cross  the  Irwell  he  built  a  stone  and 
brick  aqueduct,  which  was  the  first  of  its  kind,  and 
one  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  its  time.  When  the 
Irwell  became  in  turn  a  canal,  the  question  arose 
how  one  waterway  should  cut  the  other.  The  smaller 
must,  of  course,  give  way  to  the  more  important,  but 
the  construction  of  locks  from  the  higher  to  the 
lower  level  would  entail  a  waste  of  water  which  the 
Bridgewater  supply  could  not  make  good.  Sir  E. 
Leader  Williams  met  the  difficulty  by  a  conception 

257  R 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

as  unique  as  that  of  Brindley.  The  Canal  should  not 
have  its  level  interfered  w^ith,  but  a  section  of  it 
should  be  bodily  moved  out  of  the  way  of  passing 
steamers.  The  masonry  was  pulled  down  and  re- 
placed by  an  iron  trough  resting  at  its  centre  on  a 
pier  rising  in  mid-channel.  The  following  is  a  descrip- 
tion given  by  its  designer  ^ : — 

"  The  pier  is  mainly  built  of  concrete,  with  brickwork 
and  granite  in  the  part  that  takes  the  weight  of  the 
aqueduct,  1400  tons,  including  the  water  which  is 
always  in  the  iron  trough  through  which  the  barges 
pass.  The  sides  of  the  trough  are  i  foot  above  the 
water  level  ;  it  is  carried  by  side  girders  234  feet  long, 
22  feet  3  inches  apart  from  the  centres  of  the  girders, 
which  are  33  feet  deep,  tapering  off  to  28  feet  9  inches 
at  the  ends,  with  a  side  tow-path  carried  on  a  gallery 
9  feet  above  the  water  level.  Water-tight  iron  swing- 
gates  are  provided  at  each  fixed  shore  end,  and  also  at 
each  end  of  the  trough  ;  when  all  four  gates  are  open, 
barges  pass  along  the  Canal  as  usual.  If  a  ship  is  to 
pass  through  the  aqueduct  all  the  gates  are  closed,  the 
shore  gates  keeping  back  the  water  in  the  Canal,  and 
the  other  gates  confining  the  water  in  the  trough 
when  it  is  swung  open  for  the  passage  of  the  ship. 
The  gates  are  worked  by  hydraulic  power,  las  is  also 
the  trough,  which  can  be  swung  with  barges  in  it,  the 
gross  weight  to  be  moved  remaining  the  same.  At 
each  end  of  the  trough  a  water-tight  joint  is  made  by 
an  iron  wedge-piece  of  the  shape  of  the  cross  section 

*  Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers ^  1897-98, 


The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 

of  the  end  of  the  trough,  both  ends  and  bottom  being 
faced  with  india-rubber.  The  fixed  and  movable  ends 
of  the  aqueduct  are  slightly  tapered,  and  about  i  foot 
apart ;  this  vacancy  is  filled  by  the  wedge-piece,  which 
weighs  about  12  tons,  and  is  lifted  by  four  hydraulic 
rams  sufficiently  to  allow  the  trough  to  be  moved,  the 
water  between  the  gates  being  passed  off  into  the  Ship 
Canal.  The  junctions  just  described  are  not  at  right 
angles  to  the  trough,  but  are  slightly  diagonal,  so  as 
to  allow  sufficient  clearance  for  moving  the  trough. 
After  it  has  been  again  closed,  the  wedge-piece  is 
dropped  on  to  its  seating,  being  of  the  same  taper 
as  the  ends  of  the  trough  and  aqueduct. 

''The  arrangement  of  the  annular  girders,  rollers, 
&c.,  are  the  same  as  those  for  the  heaviest  swing- 
bridges  already  described,  but  half  the  weight  of  the 
movable  portion  of  the  aqueduct  is  taken  by  a  central 
hydraulic  press,  4  feet  9 J  inches  in  diameter  and  2 
feet  3  inches  deep,  which  acts  as  a  pivot  and  is  free  to 
turn ;  a  hydraulic  buffer  and  locking  bolts  are  also 
provided.  The  power  is  obtained  from  the  adjacent 
hydraulic  station,  which  is  also  used  for  the  road 
swing-bridge.  The  aqueduct  has  never  given  any 
trouble,  working  quickly  and  with  smoothness,  a  re- 
sult for  which  much  credit  is  due  to  the  constructors, 
Messrs.  Handyside  &  Co." 

Not  many  miles  from  Barton  may  be  seen  another 
remarkable  instance  of  barges  moved  in  closed 
troughs  with  the  same  object  of  avoiding  lock  wastage. 
At  Anderton,  some  little  distance  south  of  Runcorn, 

259 


Romance   of  Modern  Engineering 

the  Trent  and  Mersey  Canal  meets  the  Weaver 
Navigation  at  a  point  where  there  is  a  difference  of 
50  feet  in  their  levels.  Barges  up  to  100  tons  dis- 
placement are  transported  from  the  one  to  the  other 
by  means  of  a  double  hydraulic  lift,  working  vertically. 
Two  troughs,  each  weighing  with  contents  240  tons, 
are  supported  on  two  cast-iron  rams  placed  under 
their  centres,  the  cylinders  of  which  are  connected  by 
piping.  When  both  troughs  are  full  the  pressure  on 
the  rams  is  equal,  and  no  movement  takes  place. 
But  on  6  inches  of  water  being  transferred  by  syphons 
from  the  one  trough  to  the  other  the  heavier  forces 
up  the  ram  of  the  lighter.  Similar  lifts  have  been 
since  constructed  at  Fontinelles,  on  the  Neufosse 
Canal  in  France,  at  La  Louviere,  on  the  Central 
Belgium  Canal,  and  at  Peterborough,  on  the  Canadian 
Trent  Canal.  This  last  has  a  rise  of  65  feet.  The 
second  transports  vessels  of  400-tons  burden. 

Among  the  other  chief  features  of  the  Ship  Canal 
we  must  include  the  Weaver  sluices,  the  locks,  and 
the  Manchester  Docks. 

The  River  Weaver  entered  the  Mersey  about  2J 
miles  below  Runcorn.  When  the  embankment  was 
built  between  the  canal  and  the  estuary  the  natural 
passage  of  the  river  was  cut  off,  and  it  became  neces- 
sary to  provide  means  for  letting  the  waters  of  the 
Weaver  into  the  estuary  in  the  same  period  of  each 
tide  as  they  would  have  passed  into  the  estuary  if  the 
Ship  Canal  had  not  been  made.  Great  sluices  were 
therefore  erected  on  the  embankment  on  a  platform  of 

260 


The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 

masonry  470  feet  long  and  3  to  4  feet  thick,  pro- 
tected on  both  faces  by  sheet  piles  and  stones 
against  the  undermining  action  of  the  water  passing 
over. 

Steel  caissons  36  feet  long  and  9  feet  wide  were 
built  into  the  platform  to  contain  the  lower  part  of 
the  piers  between  the  sluice  gates,  which  are  ten  in 
number,  each  30  feet  wide,  with  a  lift  of  13  feet.  A 
bridge  passing  over  the  tops  of  the  piers  carries  the 
winding-gear,  by  means  of  which  two  men  can  easily 
raise  the  ponderous  gates. 

Since  the  Weaver  is  practically  the  only  route  by 
which  Cheshire  salt  can  reach  Liverpool  for  export, 
any  derangement  of  traffic  over  the  Navigation 
would  have  spelt  heavy  loss  to  the  salt  mines  and  the 
British  salt  trade.  Under  the  Ship  Canal  Acts  the 
Company  had  to  permit  Weaver  salt  barges  a  free 
use  of  the  Ship  Canal  to  Eastham,  unless  their  tonnage 
exceeded  that  of  those  previously  used.  Chemical 
and  other  traffic  had  to  pay  the  usual  tolls  to  the 
Company.  If  the  owners  preferred  it,  however,  the 
barges  could  drop  into  the  Mersey  at  Runcorn,  or 
Weston  Mersey  locks. 

The  locks  on  the  direct  course  of  the  Canal  at 
Latchford,  Irlam,  Barton,  and  Mode  Wheel,  are 
duplicated  ;  a  600  by  65  lock  lying  parallel  to  one 
350  by  45  feet.  By  means  of  intermediate  gates  these 
can  be  subdivided  into  smaller  lengths  of  150  and  450 
feet,  and  120  and  230  feet  respectively,  so  as  to  pass 
craft  of  all  sizes  with  the  greatest  possible  economy  of 

261 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

time.  Large  culverts  running  along  the  lock  walls  fill 
the  350-foot  lock  in  4J  minutes,  and  the  other  in  pro- 
portionate time.  Between  the  smaller  lock  and  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Canal — which  doubles  its  breadth 
at  the  locks — is  a  weir  pierced  by  30-foot  sluices  to 
pass  all  surplus  water.  In  flood  time  these  are  espe- 
cially useful ;  on  such  occasions  some  of  the  spate  is 
discharged  through  the  embankments  into  the  upper 
reaches  of  the  Mersey  estuary. 

At  Eastham,  a  third  lock,  150  feet  long,  is  added 
the  600  and  350-foot  locks  having  their  width  in- 
creased to  80  and  50  feet.  The  cement  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  locks  was  subjected  to  severe 
tests;  a  notice  of  which  may  be  interesting  to  those 
readers  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  properties  of 
this  material. 

The  cement  was  tested  fourteen  days  after  delivery. 
Samples  taken  from  every  30  tons  were  first  passed 
through  sieves  of  2000  meshes  to  the  square  inch/'and 
all  cement  rejected  which  left  a  residue  of  more  than 
10  per  cent,  in  the  sieve. 

Briquettes  having  a  sectional  area  of  2J  square 
inches  were  then  made  and  submerged  in  water  for 
eight  days,  at  the  end  of  which  time  their  power  to 
resist  tensile  stress  was  proved.  The  minimum  per- 
mitted was  a  pull  of  700  lbs. ;  some  stood  a  stress  of 
3000  lbs.,  or  about  ij  tons,  without  breaking  ;  but 
the  average  resistance  was  about  1000  lbs. 

All  cement  used  in  the  Forth  Bridge  foundation 
had  to  undergo  equally  severe  tests ;  for  we  read  that 

262 


The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 

the  contractors  required  a  briquette  of  i  square  inch 
section  to  resist  a  pull  of  400  lbs.  at  the  end  of  seven 
days.  In  fact,  owing  to  the  large  amounts  now  used, 
cement  for  all  important  works  is  submitted  to  a 
rigorous  system  of  testing  and  analysis  before  being 
accepted  from  the  manufacturers. 

The  Manchester  and  Salford  Docks,  which  com- 
mence at  Mode  Wheel  Locks,  have  an  area  of  104 
acres,  152  acres  of  quay  space,  and  a  frontage  of 
5  miles.  These  figures  are,  however,  only  temporary, 
since  new  docks  are  in  course  of  construction.  Dock 
No.  9,  will  alone  have  a  frontage  of  over  a  mile,  and 
Dock  No.  10  will  be  of  almost  equal  dimensions. 
The  quays  carry  sheds  and  warehouses,  rising  to  seven 
storeys,  and  over  30  miles  of  railway  sidings.  They 
are  equipped  with  steam,  hydraulic,  and  electric 
cranes  and  other  appliances  for  quick  dispatch. 
There  is  also  a  grain  elevator  of  40,000  tons 
capacity. 

That,  owing  to  the  huge  expenditure  incurred  by 
the  Company,  the  shareholders  of  ordinary  stock  do 
not  find  their  investments  profitable,  will  be  evident 
enough  on  reference  to  the  quotations  of  the  money 
market.  At  the  same  time,  it  would  be  a  great  mis- 
take to  condemn  this  magnificent  engineering  achieve- 
ment as  a  commercial  white  elephant. 

We  must  remember  that  the  Ship  Canal  is  in  direct 
communication  with  the  whole  of  the  inland  naviga- 
tions of  the  country  ;  that  the  area  to  and  from  which 
the  canal  traffic  is  carted  contains  2J  million  people, 

263 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

and  that  in  the  districts  nearer  to  the  Canal  than  to 
any  other  ocean  steamship  port  is  found  a  fifth  of  the 
population  of  the  British  Isles. 

A  city  far  inland  has  become  a  seaport,  with  facili- 
ties equal  to  any  on  the  coast,  and  this  in  spite  of 
great  opposition  from  rival  interests  and  almost  in- 
superable physical  obstacles.  Why  ?  Because  Man- 
chester is  the  centre  of  one  of  England's  greatest 
industries,  which,  owing  to  its  natural  position,  was 
severely  handicapped  in  competition  with  other  pro- 
gressive countries  by  the  cost  of  transport  to  and  from 
the  ocean  ports.  If  Manchester  meant  to  hold  her 
own,  freights  must  be  delivered  at  her  very  doors, 
unbroken,  since  "  breaking  bulk "  often  ate  up  the 
manufacturer's  profits.  The  reduction  in  cost  of 
transport  and  handling  the  6,000,000  tons  of  cotton 
imported  annually  into  the  Manchester  district 
has  amounted  to  ;£5oo,ooo  sterling ;  and  the  total 
benefit,  under  this  heading,  to  the  community 
may  be  reckoned  at  more  than  double  that 
sum. 

A  most  eloquent  testimony  to  the  usefulness  of  the 
Canal  is  the  external  change  that  has  come  over  the 
face  of  Manchester.  Previously  to  1880  the  city 
showed  decided  traces  of  incipient  decay.  Many 
large  works  were  moving  to  Glasgow  and  other  ports, 
where  they  could  save  the  excessive  costs  of  carriage  ; 
empty  warehouses  boded  the  migration  of  trade. 
Since  the  opening  of  the  Canal,  new  industries  have 
started  at  the  terminus  and  along  the  banks,  the  de- 

264 


The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 

serted  mills  and  warehouses  again  teem  with  life, 
miles  of  new  streets  have  been  laid  out,  and  renewed 
activity  is  seen  on  all  sides. 

The  traffic  returns  increase  steadily  from  year  to 
year.  In  1896  the  whole  receipts  from  the  Ship 
Canal  Department  were  ^^182,000,  in  1902  they  had 
risen  to  ;^358,49i,  or  nearly  double.  In  1896  the 
profits  were  £6^y  in  1902  ^£140,955.  These  figures 
show  that,  though  large  accessions  of  traffic  bring 
an  increase  in  expenditure,  that  increase  is  not  in 
proportion  to  the  tonnage. 

The  Directors  of  the  Company  do  their  utmost 
to  encourage  merchants  to  use  their  Canal.  Al- 
ready suggestions  have  been  made  for  deepening 
the  Canal  a  couple  of  feet  to  accommodate  vessels 
of  11,000  tons  capacity — double  the  size  of  the  largest 
cargo  steamer  afloat  when  the  Act  was  obtained  in 
1885  for  the  construction  of  the  Canal.  Estabhshed 
lines  of  steamers  ply  between  Manchester,  America, 
the  Mediterranean,  and  other  parts  of  the  world.  As 
recently  as  January  1903  a  regular  fortnightly  service 
was  inaugurated  with  Boston ;  and  the  number  of 
monthly  sailings  steadily  augments. 

Whatever  may  be  the  future  fortunes  of  the  Canal, 
nothing  can  detract  from  the  public-spirited  policy 
that  brought  it  to  completion,  or  from  the  skill  and 
perseverance  of  its  engineers.  When  Macaulay's  New 
Zealander  of  the  future  has  wearied  of  gazing  upon 
the  ruins  of  St.  Paul's  from  the  broken  arches  of 
London  Bridge,  he  might  with  profit  turn  his  steps 

265 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

to  the  north.  We  feel  confident  that  after  a  journey 
from  end  to  end  of  the  Canal,  even  if  its  channel  has 
silted  in,  and  its  locks  and  wharves  have  fallen  into 
decay,  his  verdict  will  be,  "the  people  that  did  this 
work  must  have  been  a  mighty  race/' 


266 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE     PANAMA     CANAL 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  how  considerate  and  at  the 
same  time  unkind  Nature  has  been  to  man,  in  her 
mode  of  moulding  the  earth's  surface  and  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  sea  and  land. 

She  appears  to  have  been  undecided  as  to  the  relative 
advantages  of  an  isthmus  and  a  strait.  At  Suez  she 
almost  severed  Asia  from  Africa,  and  then  at  the  very- 
last  moment  left  a  narrow  neck  of  sandy  desert.  In 
Greece  she  ordained  that  the  two  portions  should  be 
connected  so  that  men  might  pass  from  the  one  to 
the  other  dry-shod.  Then  with  sudden  whim  she 
separated  Africa  from  Europe  at  Gibraltar,  cut  Great 
Britain  off  from  the  Continent,  while,  on  the  farther 
side  of  the  Atlantic,  the  two  Americas  were  permitted 
to  keep  a  gentle  grip  on  one  another  at  Panama. 

It  would,  perhaps,  be  difficult  to  decide  whether, 
taking  human  history  as  a  whole,  the  junction  of  land 
with  land  has  proved  more  useful  than  the  union  of 
sea  with  sea  ;  whether  the  Gibraltar  gap  has  benefited 
the  Mediterranean  countries  more  than  it  has  hampered 
Spain  and  North-West  Africa  ;  whether  the  Bosphorus 
and  Dardanelles  have  advanced  Russia  more  than 
they  have  retarded  Turkey  and  Asia  Minor ;  whether 

267 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Egyptian  civilisation  gained  or  lost  by  the  sandy  strip 
at  Suez ;  whether  the  Central  American  neck  was  or 
was  not  a  boon  to  the  continents  it  connects. 

One  thing  is  certain,  that,  as  soon  as  a  nation  takes 
to  the  sea,  it  feels  the  shackles  of  a  neighbouring 
isthmus.  The  Pharaohs  endeavoured  to  join  the  Nile 
to  the  Red  Sea.  Xerxes  and  Nero  in  turn  tried  to 
breach  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 

During  the  last  fifty  years  uninterrupted  land  com- 
munication has  been  repeatedly  sacrificed  to  the 
waterway,  at  Suez,  at  Corinth,  in  the  Danish  Peninsula, 
in  Holland,  since  the  shortening  of  a  voyage  by 
hundreds,  or  maybe  thousands,  of  miles,  far  more 
than  counterbalances  the  inconvenience  of  confining 
road  and  rail  traffic  to  a  few  bridges. 

The  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869  marks  an 
important  epoch  in  the  world's  commercial  history, 
one  fraught,  too,  with  great  political  importance. 
East  and  West  could  now  join  hands  by  sea  without 
having  to  embrace  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  England 
and  India  are  now  but  weeks  instead  of  months  apart. 

The  story  of  the  Suez  Canal  has  been  told  so  often 
that  a  brief  recapitulation  will  here  suffice.  Its  central 
figure  is  M.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  who  resembled 
the  great  Brunei  in  the  magnitude  of  his  schemes,  and 
like  him  was  led  by  the  energy  of  his  genius  into  mis- 
calculations of  the  cost  of  his  projects.  In  spite  of 
discouragement,  technical,  political,  and  financial,  M. 
Lesseps  insisted  that  his  plan  was  practical,  and  that 
the  desert  sand  could  be  kept  at  bay  by  dredgers  when 

?68 


The  Panama  Canal 

once  the  channel  had  been  completed  and  filled  with 
water.  By  employing  the  latest  mechanical  con- 
trivances he  pushed  forward  a  cutting,  75  feet  wide 
at  bottom,  from  the  fine  harbour  specially  built  at 
Port  Said,  through  the  shallows  of  Lake  Menzaleh, 
across  15  miles  of  desert,  through  Lake  Balah, 
and  more  desert,  to  the  long  Bitter  Lakes,  whence  a 
third  stretch  penetrated  sandy  waste  to  Suez. 

During  the  six  months  that  intervened  between  the 
opening  of  the  Canal  and  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  of  1870,  M.  de  Lesseps  was  the  hero  of 
Europe.  The  newspapers  with  one  consent  sang  his 
praises.  Crowned  heads  smiled  upon  him.  Honours 
fell  fast  and  thick.  Wherever  he  went  banquets  and 
entertainments  were  his  portion,  especially  in  England, 
the  country  that  benefited  most  by  the  successful  con- 
clusion of  his  enterprise. 

But  Nemesis  was  pursuing  the  over-fortunate  en- 
gineer. Like  Marius,  the  saviour  of  Rome,  he  was 
destined  to  outlive  his  reputation,  and  feel  the  bitter- 
ness of  a  fall  from  hero-worship  to  degradation  in  the 
eyes  of  his  countrymen. 

His  star  had,  unknown  to  him,  begun  to  set  when 
he  first  cast  eyes  on  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
Since  Nunez  de  Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific  in  1513, 
that  barrier  between  the  oceans  had  already  been  the 
subject  of  many  plans  for  connecting  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Pacific.  In  the  sixteenth  century  Gomera  the 
historian  suggested  a  canal,  which  was  also  part  of 
the  projects  of  William  Paterson,  the  founder  of  the  111- 

269 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

starred  Darien  scheme  of  1695.  During  the  eighteenth 
century  the  piercing  of  the  isthmus  was  discussed  in 
Spain  and  elsewhere  by  men  too  numerous  to  mention. 
But  only  after  the  revolution  in  commercial  relations 
throughout  the  world,  produced  by  the  opening  of 
the  Suez  Canal,  did  there  appear  any  chance  of  trans- 
forming design  into  fact. 

In  1850-1855  an  American  company  constructed  a 
railway  from  Colon  —  formerly  Aspinwall  —  on  the 
Atlantic  to  Panama  on  the  Pacific  coast,  at  a  cost  of 
^2,500,000.  Mr.  A.  Gallenga,  writing  in  1880,  thus 
describes  the  country  through  which  it  passes :  "  The 
traveller  has  hardly  left  Colon  five  minutes  before  he 
finds  himself  wafted  through  the  tangle  of  a  primeval 
forest,  by  turns  a  swamp,  a  jungle,  a  savannah,  yet  a 
garden  and  a  paradise  ;  a  strange  jumble  of  whatever 
Nature  can  muster  most  varied,  most  gorgeous  in 
colours,  and  sweetest  in  odours  to  delight  a  man's 
senses.  Colon  is  built  on  a  marshy  island,  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  a  creek,  which  the  train  crosses 
soon  after  quitting  the  station.  For  a  little  while  the 
land  lies  low,  soaked  at  this  season  with  green  or 
yellow  fever-breeding  stagnant  water,  the  surface  of 
which  is  carpeted  all  over  with  those  floating  plants 
which  the  gardener's  skill  rears  with  infinite  pains  in 
English  hothouses.  But  soon  the  ground  rises  and 
breaks  up  into  gentle  knolls,  so  densely  wooded  as  to 
make  the  country  round  one  impervious  mass  of 
green.  The  rank,  hopelessly  intricate  vegetation 
invades  every  inch  of  space,  pressing  close  to  the  very 

270 


The  Panama  Canal 

rails  of  the  line,  and  in  deep  cuttings,  or  in  the  hollows 
of  the  valleys,  hanging  so  intrusively  over  it  that  in 
some  places  the  company  must  be  at  no  little  trouble 
to  make  good  its  right  of  way,  well  aware  that  were 
it  to  slacken  its  exertions  the  whole  track  would  be 
speedily  obliterated.  There  is  nothing  imagination 
can  conjure  up  to  match  the  variety  of  the  green  hues, 
the  vividness  of  the  wild  flowers  of  that  virgin  forest ; 
nothing  to  equal  the  chaos  of  that  foliage,  as  roots, 
stems,  and  branches  crowd  upon  and  struggle  with 
one  another,  the  canopy  overhead  being  further 
tangled  by  hosts  of  lianes  and  other  trailing  parasites, 
blending  leaf  with  leaf  and  thread  with  thread,  like 
the  warp  and  woof  of  a  carpet."  ^ 

Since  the  railway  route  will  be  the  subject  of  the 
following  pages  —  as  materially  the  same  as  that 
selected  for  the  Panama  Canal — its  physiographic 
features  may  be  also  briefly  noted.  The  isthmus 
between  Colon  and  Panama  witnesses  a  diminution 
of  the  "backbone  of  the  Americas" — the  Rockies  and 
Andes — to  an  elevation  scarcely  worthy  the  name  of 
a  hill.  On  the  Colon  side  the  country  for  20 
miles  rises  very  gradually  ;  on  the  Pacific  slope  the 
ascent  is  more  abrupt,  reaching  its  highest  point  of 
333  feet  above  sea-level  in  the  now  notorious  Cerro 
de  Culebra,  and  then  sinking,  with  occasional  upward 
gradients,  to  San  Pablo.  At  Obispo  the  rail  encounters 
the  river  Chagres,  the  course  of  which  it  follows  at 
intervals  northwards  to  Gatun,  where  the  two  separate 

*  "South  America,"  by  A.  Gallenga. 
271 


Romance   of  Modern  Engineering 

at  right  angles.  The  influence  of  the  river  and 
Culebra  Hill  on  the  construction  of  the  canal  will 
presently  be  noticed. 

In  1850  a  treaty  known  as  the  Clayton-Bulwer  was 
signed  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
guaranteeing  the  neutrality  of  any  canal  cut  across 
the  isthmus.  Twenty-six  years  later  the  French, 
elated  by  the  success  of  the  Suez  Canal,  organised  in 
Paris  an  association  to  survey  the  isthmus  with  re- 
gard to  the  feasibility  of  a  ship  canal.  A  lieutenant 
in  the  French  Army,  M.  Lucien  N.  Bonaparte-Wyse, 
was  despatched  to  Central  America  to  make  the 
necessary  investigations,  and  approach  the  Colombian 
Government  on  the  subject  of  a  concession  to  the 
association  of  rights  to  carry  out  his  recommenda- 
tions. The  Government  granted  a  charter  whereby 
the  grantees  obtained  ''  the  free  cession  of  all  public 
lands  required  for  the  construction  and  service  of  the 
canal,  of  a  belt  of  land  219  yards  wide  on  each  side 
of  its  banks  throughout  the  entire  length,  and  ij 
million  acres  in  localities  to  be  chosen  by  the  com- 
pany." The  concession  was  to  endure  for  99  years 
from  the  opening  of  the  canal,  after  which  period  the 
canal  would  bee  me  the  absolute  property  of  the 
Government.  The  following  conditions  were,  how- 
ever, imposed:  (a)  That  the  rights  could  not  be 
transferred  to  any  nation  or  foreign  government; 
(d)  that  the  canal  should  be  finished  within  twelve 
years  of  the  formation  of  a  constructive  company. 

When  M.  Wyse  returned  to  Europe  with  his  plans 
272 


The  Panama  Canal 

and  treaty,  M.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  now  seventy- 
five  years  of  age,  was  chosen  chairman  of  a  Committee, 
and  at  once  organised  an  International  Congress  to 
discuss  the  several  schemes  for  constructing  a  ship 
canal.  The  chairman  urged  the  adoption  of  a  canal 
at  sea  level,  which  would  resemble  the  Suez  in  its  ease 
of  navigation.  It  may  be  observed  that  several  of  the 
delegates  strongly  recommended  a  canal  with  locks. 

The  authority  and  enthusiasm  of  Lesseps,  however, 
carried  the  day,  and  the  public  was  invited  to  sub- 
scribe 400,000,000  francs.  But  investors  hung  back 
until  after  the  chairman  had  personally  visited  the 
isthmus  and  decided  the  route  of  the  Canal,  when 
600,000  shares  of  500  francs  each  were  quickly  taken 
up.  "Thus  was  born  an  Association  destined  to 
impoverish  thousands  of  thrifty  families,  to  besmirch 
the  fair  name  of  a  great  nation,  to  lead  it  to  the  verge 
of  revolution,  and  rob  it  of  any  pride  and  glory  in  the 
completion  of  a  work  of  world-wide  utility  and  im- 
portance." ^  To  those  who  review  the  situation,  how 
pathetic  it  appears — upwards  of  200,000  people  in- 
vesting, many  their  little  all,  in  an  undertaking  fore- 
doomed by  peculation  and  corruption  to  failure ;  the 
famous  engineer  leading  this  great  band  of  investors 
to  a  common  ruin,  as  in  1870  Napoleon  had  drawn 
out  his  troops  to  meet  disaster  at  the  hands  of  the 
Prussians ;  the  struggle  against  misfortune  after  mis- 
fortune ;  the  final  financial  Sedan,  that  left  behind  it 

*  Mr.  J.  G.  Leigh  in  "  Traction  and  Transmission,"  February  1903. 

273  S 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

"  memories  scarcely  less  bitter  than  those  of  the 
annee  terrible ^  1870-71." 

The  period  1881-88  makes  sad  reading  in  the 
history  of  the  Canal.  In  1880  M.  de  Lesseps  esti- 
mated the  total  cost  at  843  million  francs  (;£34,ooo,ooo). 
The  following  year  he  placed  the  figures  at  ;£20,5oo,ooo, 
in  1885  at  ;^28,ooo,oo.  By  1886  ^31,000,000  had  been 
spent,  by  1887  ;^40,ooo,ooo.  When  the  crash  came 
the  total  share  and  loan  capital  actually  raised  had 
reached  the  enormous  total  of  2,000,000,000  francs, 
and  the  work  was  not  a  quarter  done  ! 

The  causes  of  this  gigantic  disaster,  that  desolated 
thousands  of  humble  French  homes,  are  manifold. 
First,  the  deadly  climate,  pithily  described  as  that 
of  two  seasons — the  wet,  when  people  die  of  yellow 
fever  in  four  or  five  days,  and  the  dry,  when  people 
die  of  pernicious  fever  in  from  twenty-four  to  thirty- 
six  hours.  During  two  seasons  the  daily  burial  rate 
averaged  thirty  to  forty,  and  that  for  weeks  together. 

Then  the  dishonesty  of  those  in  high  places — which 
came  out  in  the  subsequent  trials — and  the  misappro- 
priation of  funds  and  wilful  waste.  ''The  expendi- 
ture," says  Dr.  Nelson,  "  had  been  something  simply 
colossal.  One  Director-General  lived  in  a  mansion 
that  cost  over  ;£20,ooo  ;  his  pay  was  ;f  10,000  a  year ; 
and  every  time  he  went  out  on  the  line  he  had  his 
deplacementj  which  gave  him  the  liberal  sum  of  £\o 
a  day  additional.  .  .  .  One  Canal  chief  had  had  built 
a  famous  pigeon-house  while  I  was  on  the  isthmus 
recently.     It  cost  the  Company  ;£30oo.    Another  man 

274 


The  Panama  Canal 

had  built  a  bath-house  on  the  most  approved  prin- 
ciples. This  cost  ;£8ooo.  . .  .  Five  million  dollars  have 
been  spent  in  creating  a  very  pretty,  well-kept  tropical 
town  at  Christophe  Colomb.  Sidings  are  covered 
with  valuable  engines  and  all  kinds  of  movable 
plant,  which  are  out  in  all  weathers  and  going  to  ruin/' 
Equally  fatal  were  the  physical  obstacles  afforded 
by  the  Culebra  Hill  and  the  river  Chagres.  '^The 
summit  cut  on  the  axis  of  the  Canal  for  about  half  a 
mile  has  an  average  cutting  of  loo  metres  (330  feet), 
or  360  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  Canal.  The  width 
of  this  cut  (being  on  the  hillside)  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground  is  about  300  metres  (904  feet),  and  the 
depth  for  a  few  hundred  feet  on  the  highest  point 
in  this  cross  section  is  about  164  metres  (538  feet) 
from  the  bed  of  the  canal."  ^  In  1888  only  34  million 
cubic  metres  had  been  excavated  out  of  an  estimated 
total  of  161  million  cubic  metres,  and  of  the  material 
removed  four-fifths  was  soft  and  easily  worked.  The 
Culebra  section — of  hard  rock — had  been  scarcely 
touched,  and  it  was  calculated  that  470  million  francs 
would  still  have  to  be  disbursed  for  the  completion  of 
it.  An  equal  amount  must  also  be  devoted  to  the 
taming  of  the  Chagres,  the  river  that  crossed  the 
course  of  the  Canal  no  less  than  twenty-nine  times. 
The  Chagres,  like  all  tropical  streams,  is  liable  to 
sudden  and  excessive  fluctuations.  The  original 
scheme  included  the  damming  of  the  river  at  Gam- 

^  M.  Charles  Colne  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Franklin  Institute,  New 
York,  1884. 

275 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

boa,  and  a  diversion  that  should  discharge  it  into 
Colon  Bay.  The  height  of  the  dam  was  to  be  150 
feet  above  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  its  cost  about 
;^4,ooo,ooo.  The  diversion  channels,  25  miles  long, 
had  a  dimension  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  canal 
proper,  in  order  to  carry  off  the  freshets  resulting 
from  a  rainfall  of  sometimes  6  inches  a  day !  Some 
idea  of  the  body  of  water  such  a  fall  entails  will  be 
gained  from  the  fact  that  in  November  1879  the 
Panama  railway  was  covered  to  a  depth  of  nearly 
18  feet  for  about  30  miles  1 

In  1888  M.  de  Lesseps  reluctantly  abandoned  his 
original  scheme  of  a  sea-level  canal  in  favour  of  one 
with  locks,  which  would  reduce  largely  the  amount  of 
excavation  in  the  Culebra  cutting.  But  public  con- 
fidence had  been  shaken,  and  after  his  compulsory 
resignation  of  the  chairmanship  in  1889,  the  share- 
holders resolved  that  the  Company  should  go  into 
liquidation.  The  liquidators  at  once  took  measures 
to  bring  some  sort  of  order  into  the  financial  chaos, 
and  to  organise  a  new  Company.  The  Colombian 
Government  enacted  that  the  latter  should  have  ten 
years,  dating  from  1894,  in  which  to  complete  its 
enterprise. 

The  plans  were  now  drastically  altered.  By  means 
of  an  embankment  across  the  valley  of  the  Chagres 
near  Bohio  the  country  between  that  place  and 
Obispo  would  be  converted  into  a  huge  lake,  to 
serve  as  part  of  the  canal  and  a  reservoir  for  the 
storage  of  flood  water.     In  case  of  need   a  second 

276 


The  Panama  Canal 

dam  would  be  added  at  Alhajuela,  9  miles  above 
Obispo,  A  waste  weir  was  to  carry  off  the  surplus 
water  of  the  new  lake  into  a  special  channel ;  and 
the  lake  itself  would  be  reached  from  the  lower  levels 
by. four  locks  on  the  Pacific  side  at  Paraiso,  Pedro 
Miguel;  and  Miraflores,  and  by  an  equal  number  on 
the  Atlantic  side  at  Bohio  and  Obispo.  This  scheme 
would  entail  the  diversion  of  the  railway  for  a  dis- 
tance of  31  miles  to  skirt  the  lake ;  and  a  total 
expenditure  of  over  ;£20,ooo,ooo. 

Work  on  the  Canal  was  never  stopped.  At  its  slackest 
times  more  than  1000  men  found  employment.  From 
1899-1902  the  working  force  averaged  2200  men,  so 
that  the  picture  of  plant  and  excavations  left  entirely 
to  the  tender  mercies  of  Nature  must  be  written  down 
as  an  unpleasant  fiction. 

While  the  new  Company  was  quietly  pursuing  its 
programme  the  United  States  had  instituted  surveys 
of  the  Nicaragua-Costa-Rica  Canal  region,  in  order 
to  humour  the  patriotic  cry  for  a  States-owned  and 
controlled  inter-oceanic  canal.  In  1899,  however, 
all  bills  for  the  construction  of  a  Nicaraguan  Canal 
were  rejected  in  favour  of  a  measure  providing  for 
further  investigation  of  the  whole  question — including 
the  survey  of  the  isthmus — de  novo.  The  President, 
Mr.  M'Kinley,  acting  on  powers  conferred,  appointed 
a  Commission  of  nine  members,  which  in  1901  recom- 
mended the  construction  of  a  canal  through  Lake 
Nicaragua,  with  a  total  length  of  183!  miles,  the  cost 
to  be  about  ;^40,ooo,ooo. 

277 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

This  alarmed  the  Panama  stockholders,  and  in 
1902  they  decided  to  offer  their  property  and  con- 
cessions to  the  United  States  in  consideration  of  a 
sum  of  140,000,000.  Public  opinion  being  then  com- 
pletely reversed  by  this  offer,  the  President  Iwas 
authorised  to  acquire  for  the  United  States,  at  a  cost 
not  exceeding  the  sum  demanded,  all  the  rights  and 
privileges,  unfinished  work,  plant,  and  other  property, 
of  the  New  Panama  Company  on  the  isthmus,  in- 
cluding the  railway;  to  acquire  from  the  Republic 
of  Colombia  exclusive  and  perpetual  control  of  a 
strip  of  land  not  less  than  six  miles  wide  from  the 
Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  ;  and  to  construct 
a  canal  of  such  depth  and  capacity  as  would  afford 
convenient  passage  to  ships  of  the  greatest  tonnage 
and  draught  then  in  use. 

Thus  ended  the  second  chapter  in  the  history  of 
the  Canal,  and  France,  through  the  grievous  mis- 
management in  the  period  1880-88,  "lost  an  oppor- 
tunity of  acquiring  influence  in  Central  America,  and 
upon  the  American  continent  generally,  which  in  all 
probability  will  never  again  fall  within  her  grasp." 

Colombia  had  still  to  be  reckoned  with.  As  long 
as  the  Nicaraguan  scheme  was  seriously  entertained 
by  the  United  States  the  Bogota  Government  showed 
itself  most  anxious  to  concede  almost  anything  that 
might  be  asked.  But  when  the  offer  of  the  Canal 
had  been  made  by  the  Company  these  professions 
ceased,  and  harder  terms  were  demanded.  Colombia 
continued  to  haggle  for  conditions  that  the  States 

278 


The  Panama  Canal 

could  not  grant.  Her  pecuniary  demands  were  satis- 
fied by  a  compromise,  and  her  nominal  sovereignty 
preserved  by  a  diplomatic  fiction.  But  before  the 
United  States  Government  could  commit  itself  to 
so  prodigious  an  undertaking  as  the  completion  of 
the  Canal,  it  naturally  enough  required  a  guarantee 
that  its  occupation  of  the  Canal  territory  should  be 
permanent.  The  offer  of  the  Canal  Company  having 
being  formally  accepted  in  February  1903-,  a  treaty 
was  signed  by  the  States  in  the  following  month,  as 
the  result  of  energetic  measures  on  the  part  of  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt,  and  all  that  remains  to  be  done  at 
the  time  of  writing  these  lines  is  its  ratification  by 
the  Colombian  Government  before  work  on  the  Canal 
can  be  definitely  undertaken  by  the  Americans. 

The  Commission  appointed  in  1899  rejected  the 
sea-level  scheme  of  M.  de  Lesseps  as  entailing  a  com- 
puted expenditure  of  ;^48,ooo,ooo  for  the  completion 
of  the  Canal.  In  its  place  they  suggested  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  plans  laid  before  the  new  Company 
in  1894,  which  would  require  an  outlay  of  about 
;£30,ooo,ooo. 

The  Project  for  Completion 

In  deciding  the  dimensions  of  the  Canal  the  United 
States  Commission  considered  the  future  rather  than 
the  present  types  of  the  world's  shipping.  Though 
cargo  vessels  do  not  in  the  main  increase  their  length 
and  beam  so  rapidly  as  passenger  fast  liners,  their 
individual  tonnage  very  sensibly  augments  from  year 
.     279 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

to  year,  since  experience  proves  that  large  cargoes 
are  handled  more  economically  than  small. 

The  depth  of  the  Canal  was  therefore  fixed  at  35 
feet  throughout,  and  the  minimum  bottom  width  at 
150  feet.  In  Panama  Bay  the  width  will  be  increased 
to  200  feet,  though  at  high  tide  there  will  be  a  channel 
320  feet  wide.  The  side  slopes  will  vary  between  i 
to  I  in  soft  earth  and  4  to  i  in  hard  rock.  On  curves, 
where  more  steering  room  is  required,  the  channel 
will  be  broadened  in  proportion  to  the  diminution 
of  the  radius  of  the  curve. 

The  locks,  of  which  five  flights  are  included  in  the 
plans,  will  raise  vessels  from  the  two  end  sea-level 
sections  to  the  central  stretch,  2 if  miles  long,  extend- 
ing from  Bohio  to  Pedro  San  Miguel.  This  section, 
which  includes  the  Culebra-Emperador  cutting,  will 
have  a  bottom  level  47  feet  above  mean  sea  level,  so 
that  the  two  locks  at  Bohio  will  give  a  united  lift  of 
some  82  to  90  feet,  according  to  the  altitude  of  the 
surface  of  the  central  reach.  On  the  Pacific  side  the 
transference  will  be  made  by  two  locks  at  Pedro  San 
Miguel  and  one  at  Miraflores. 

The  locks  are  to  be  doubled  at  every  step,  so  as 
to  permit  simultaneous  travel  in  both  directions,  and 
obviate  any  total  cessation  of  traffic,  in  case  of  repairs 
to  any  one  lock  being  necessary.  They  will  have  a 
clear  length  of  740  feet,  a  width  of  84  feet,  and  a 
depth  equal  to  that  of  the  canal  over  the  sills.  For 
the  quicker  passage  of  small  vessels  a  subdivision  by 
ntermediate  gates  is  contemplated.     All  locks  will  be 

280 


The  Panama  Canal 

founded  on  rock,  walled  with  concrete,  and  fed  by 
culverts  through  which  water  will  rush  at  a  maximum 
speed  of  40  miles  an  hour — a  severe  test  of  the  quality 
of  the  lining. 

It  has  been  mentioned  above  that  the  two  greatest 
difficulties  encountered  on  the  Canal  by  the  De  Lesseps 
Company  were  the  stemming  of  the  river  Chagres  and 
the  piercing  of  the  rocky  eminence  at  Culebra.  The 
American  scheme  for  overcoming  these  obstacles  is 
distinguished  by  its  boldness  of  design,  and  the  oppor- 
tunity that  it  will  afford  for  a  remarkable  display  of 
engineering  skill. 

At  Bohio  the  course  of  the  Chagres  will  be  crossed 
by  a  dam  thrown  from  side  to  side  of  the  valley.  The 
effect  of  this  dam  must  be  to  pen  up  the  waters  until 
a  lake  is  formed,  rapidly  increasing  its  area  as  it 
becomes  deeper.  It  has  been  calculated  that,  with  an 
annual  traffic  of  10,000,000  tons,  there  will  be  required 
for  the  working  of  the  locks  an  average  supply  of  1063 
cubic  feet  per  second.  The  annual  average  flow  of 
the  Chagres  is  about  3200  cubic  feet  per  second,  but 
at  the  dry  season  it  decreases  to  less  than  one-sixth 
of  this  amount.  The  United  States  Commission 
therefore  decided  that  the  lake  should  be  of  such 
dimensions  as  to  afford  storage  for  3,654,720,000  cubic 
feet,  the  total  deficiency  during  the  three  months  of 
February,  March,  and  April,  in  addition  to  the  amount 
requisite  to  maintain  a  channel  of  a  minimum  depth 
of  35  feet.  The  height  of  the  dam  will  therefore  be 
such  as  to  withstand  a  head  of  90  feet  of  water,  its 

281 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

top  having  an  elevation  of  loo  feet  above  mean  sea 
level. 

As  the  water  collected  by  the  lake  would  naturally 
flow  off  at  the  lowest  point  after  attaining  a  certain 
depth,  it  has  been  determined  to  bar  that  point — near 
the  head  of  the  Rio  Gigante — by  a  weir,  the  height  of 
which  will  be  85  feet  above  mean  sea  level.  When 
the  water  of  the  lake  is  even  with  the  crest  of  the 
weir  it  will  cover  38J  square  miles ;  but  in  time  of 
heavy  flood,  with  a  discharge  5  feet  deep  over  the 
weir  crest,  the  area  will  be  enlarged  to  43  square 
miles. 

The  water  pouring  over  the  weir,  which  is  to  be 
2000  feet  long,  will  pass  into  artificial  channels,  con- 
necting a  succession  of  swamps  until  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Gatun  is  reached,  where  it  will  once  again 
enter  the  bed  of  the  Chagres. 

The  most  important  feature  of  this  scheme  is  the 
great  Bohio  Dam.  At  the  summit  2546  feet  long,  it 
will  have  a  total  height  above  the  foundations  of  228 
feet  on  its  centre  line,  where  the  earth-work  forming 
the  bulk  of  the  construction  is  to  be  reinforced  by  a 
masonry  core  driven  down  to  hard  rock.  '^  The  earth 
faces  are  designed  to  have  mean  slopes  of  one  vertical  to 
three  horizontal,  broken  by  benches,  each  6  feet  wide. 
Although  it  is  necessary  to  pave  only  the  up-stream 
face,  it  is  probable  that  both  faces  will  be  revetted 
with  rock  spoil  from  the  site  of  the  Bohio  locks.  The 
masonry  core  would  be  30  feet  thick  at  and  below 
—  30  (2>.  30  feet  below  sea  level),  tapering  from  that 

282 


The  Panama  Canal 

level  to  8  feet  at  the  top.  The  proposed  method  of 
construction  involves  many  novel  and  untried  features, 
the  extension  of  pneumatic  work  to  probably  unprece- 
dented depths,  and  special  details  in  making  tight 
joints  between  the  caissons.  The  difficulties,  very 
great  under  ordinary  circumstances,  will  probably 
be  considerably  enhanced  by  climatic  and  other 
surroundings."  1 

It  is  calculated  that  the  construction  of  this  enor- 
mous barrier  will  entail  the  removal  and  placing  in 
position  of  2,200,000  million  cubic  yards  of  material, 
of  which  nearly  300,000  cubic  yards  will  be  represented 
by  concrete.  The  cost,  ;^i,2io,235,  will  equal  that 
of  the  Nile  Dam,  and  the  cubical  contents  of  both 
are  about  the  same. 

The  creation  of  the  lake  will  of  course  enormously 
decrease  the  amount  of  excavation  originally  estimated 
by  M.  de  Lesseps.  Yet  a  huge  quantity  of  quarrying 
will  be  necessary  at  the  famous  Emperador-Culebra 
cutting,  where  the  bottom  of  the  Canal  will  still  be  286 
feet  below  the  natural  surface  of  the  ground.  To 
quote  Mr.  Leigh  once  more,  '*  From  many  points  of 
view  the  Emperador-Culebra  cuttings  may  be  regarded 
as  unique  in  the  annals  of  engineering,  for  never  has 
the  hand  of  man  essayed  a  task  of  like  character  and 
more  striking  dimensions.  ...  It  involves  labour 
necessarily  costly  and  prolonged,  and  its  main  interest 
to  engineers  centres  in  the  remarkable  opportunity 
which   the   undertaking  will  afford  for  organisation, 

*  Mr.  J.  G.  Leigh  in  "Traction  and  Transmission." 
283 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

methods,  and  tools  specially  adapted  to  the  work. 
.  .  .  The  amount  of  excavation  involved  in  the  com- 
pletion of  the  cutting  is  estimated  at  about  43,237,200 
cubic  yards,  or  nearly  45  per  cent,  of  the  aggregate  of 
all  classes  of  material  which  must  be  removed  prior  to 
the  opening  of  the  waterway.  It  is  believed  that  by 
methods  of  excavation  usually  resorted  to,  the  cutting 
can  be  completed  in  eight  years,  exclusive  of  a  period 
of  two  years  for  preparation  and  unforeseen  delays." 

Much  of  the  excavation  will  be  through  rock,  but 
the  strata  of  clay  encountered  will  require  an  equal 
expenditure  in  labour,  as  their  unstable  nature  necessi- 
tates the  lining  of  the  slopes  throughout  the  entire 
length  of  the  cutting  with  masonry  retaining-walls, 
built  nearly  vertically  on  a  series  of  broad  ledges, 
rising  one  above  the  other  on  either  flank.  The 
Panama  railroad,  which  must  be  rebuilt  for  T5J  miles 
between  Bohio  and  Obispo  to  avoid  the  lake,  will, 
after  passing  the  latter  town,  run  for  six  miles  or  so 
along  one  of  the  ledges  on  the  east  side  of  the 
cutting. 

Out  of  the  $144,233,258  to  be  devoted  to  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Canal,  the  6  miles  of  deepest  cutting 
will  consume  142,000,000,  more  than  the  aggregate 
cost  of  the  Bohio  dam,  all  the  locks,  the  Gigante 
weir,  and  the  other  work  to  be  done  between  Bohio 
and  Miraflores.  Had  Nature  but  omitted  the  Cerro 
de  Culebra  from  her  scheme,  it  is  probable  that  for 
years  past  vessels  would  have  crossed  from  ocean  to 
ocean. 

284 


The  Panama  Canal 

At  Colon  a  large  harbour  will  be  built  to  im- 
prove the  entrance  to  the  Canal  and  protect  it 
from  the  "northers"  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  At 
the  Panama  end  4J  miles  of  dredging  will  be 
requisite  to  carry  the  Canal  to  the  6-fathom  line  in 
the  bay. 

The  time  occupied  by  vessels  in  passing  through 
the  Canal  will  vary  with  their  size,  the  permissible 
speed  decreasing  with  the  increase  of  a  ship's  tonnage. 
It  has  been  calculated  that,  allowing  5J  hours  for 
lockage,  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  will  be  but  11 J  to 
14J  hours  apart,  according  to  the  dimensions  of  the 
steamer. 

The  projected  Nicaraguan  Canal  —  now  finally 
abandoned — would  have  had  a  length  of  187  miles 
between  Greytown  on  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  Brito 
on  the  Pacific.  Of  this  distance  the  lake  would 
occupy  70  miles,  and  the  canalised  San  Juan  River  an 
equal  proportion.  It  was  proposed  to  dam  the  San 
Juan  at  Conchuda,  and  so  throw  some  50  miles  of  its 
course  into  the  same  level  as  the  lake — 104  to  no 
feet  above  mean  sea  level.  Four  locks  between  Con- 
chuda and  an  equal  number  between  the  lake  and 
Brito  were  to  transfer  the  traffic  from  the  lower  to  the 
higher  level. 

The  disadvantages  attaching  to  this  route  were  : 
(a)  the  cost,  double  of  that  required  for  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Panama  Canal ;  (3)  the  great  difficulty  of 
controlling  so  large  a  body  of  water  as  Lake  Nicar- 
agua ;  (c)  the  large  number  of  locks,  combining  with 

285 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

the  total  length  of  the  Canal  to  make  (d)  the  passage 
of  the  Canal  a  matter  of  at  least  thirty  hours.  Under 
this  latter  head  it  may  be  noticed  that  though  the 
distance  from  San  Francisco  to  New  York  is  377  miles 
greater  vtd  Panama  than  by  Nicaragua,  the  duration 
of  the  journey  by  water  would  be  about  the  same  in 
both  cases. 

There  cannot  be  the  least  doubt  that  the  United 
States  have  acted  prudently  in  surrendering  all  ideas 
of  a  canal  constructed  throughout  by  Yankee  capital 
and  engineers,  and  deciding  to  bend  their  efforts  to 
the  completion  of  a  work  partially  carried  out  by  the 
ill-starred  French  Companies. 

What  will  be  the  effects  of  the  perfected  Canal  on 
the  commerce  of  the  globe  it  is  indeed  hard  to  cal- 
culate. But  that  it  will  prove  an  immense  stimulus 
to  inter-oceanic  trade,  by  breaching  the  9000-mile 
barrier  of  the  American  continent  at  the  most  con- 
venient point,  is  not  to  be  doubted.  The  States,  as 
controllers  of  the  Canal,  will  gain  an  immense  strategic 
advantage,  since  they  will  be  able  to  throw  their  fleet 
from  one  ocean  to  the  other  as  required.  Further- 
more, all  their  ports  will  benefit  largely,  since  those 
on  the  west  will  then  command  a  shortened  route 
to  Africa,  and  those  on  the  east  be  much  nearer  the 
East  Asian  markets  than  formerly.  In  fact,  for  all 
practical  purposes,  Panama  will  be  the  great  gateway 
between  the  East  and  the  West. 

Yet  the  Canal  will  not  command  a  monopoly  of 
the   carrying  trade  across  Central  America,  since  a 

286 


The  Panama  Canal 

rival  is  already  in  the  field,  and  what  is  more,  actually 
at  work. 

In  the  south  of  Mexico,  east  of  the  Yucatan  pro- 
montory, the  two  oceans  are  within  i6o  miles  of  each 
other.  The  great  Cortes,  having  vainly  sought  a 
natural  channel,  conceived  the  idea  of  constructing 
a  carriage  road  across  this  comparatively  narrow 
neck,  so  as  to  put  Spain  in  communication  with  the 
spice  islands  of  the  East  Indies.  He  accordingly 
bought  up  land  on  the  Coatzacoalcos  River  and 
round  Tehuantepec — from  which  the  isthmus  takes 
its  name — with  an  eye  to  profit  by  the  road  ;  which 
was,  however,  not  actually  made  until  five  centuries 
later,  when  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California,  and 
the  dangers  of  travel  across  the  northern  prairies, 
rendered  such  an  undertaking  an  absolute  necessity. 

At  a  later  date  Captain  Eads  proposed  a  railway 
over  which  ships  should  be  transported  bodily  from 
ocean  to  ocean,  borne  on  trucks  running  over  several 
parallel  tracks,  each  furnished  with  one  or  more 
locomotives.  The  vessel  was  to  be  transferred  to 
land  from  the  water  by  means  of  a  pontoon  carrying 
a  cradle  furnished  with  wheels  running  on  six  lines 
of  rails.  As  soon  as  the  pontoon  had  been  raised 
to  the  height  at  which  its  rails  and  those  on  shore 
were  on  the  same  level,  the  cradle  and  its  ship  would 
be  moved  from  the  one  set  to  the  other,  and  all 
would  be  ready  for  the  land  journey.  It  is  needless 
to  follow  the  details  of  the  scheme  further,  as  it 
proved  abortive. 

287 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

In  1895  the  Mexican  Government  completed  an 
ordinary-type  railroad  across  theTehuantepec  Isthmus, 
from  Coatzacoalcos  on  the  north  to  Salina  Cruz  on 
the  south.  But  owing  to  the  lack  of  proper  terminal 
harbours  the  traffic  on  either  track  was  disappointing. 
At  that  time  Sir  Weetman  Pearson — head  of  the 
London  firm  of  S.  Pearson  &  Son — was  engaged  in 
the  wonderful  harbour  of  Vera  Cruz,  described  at 
length  elsewhere  in  these  pages.  He  entered  into  an 
agreement  with  the  Government  for  improving  matters 
in  the  isthmus  ;  the  Mexican  authorities  undertaking 
to  expend  ^3,000,000  on  the  harbours,  and  an  addi- 
tional ;£5oo,ooo  on  the  railway  ;  his  firm  to  carry  out 
the  contracts  and  furnish  whatever  money  might  be 
further  necessary  to  put  the  line  in  first-class  working 
order.  This  partnership  will  last  for  fifty  years,  after 
which  period  the  whole  of  the  property  will  pass 
under  the  sole  control  of  the  Government.  The  latter 
on  its  part  binds  itself  not  to  grant  during  this  time 
any  concession  for  the  construction  of  other  railways 
and  ports  within  30  miles  of  the  Tehuantepec  works ; 
but  it  reserves  the  right  of  employing  any  ships  of 
the  Company  in  event  of  war  in  consideration  of  a 
monthly  remuneration ;  and  of  transporting  coal, 
troops,  and  immigrants  at  reduced  rates;  mails  to 
be  carried  free. 

The  railroad  crosses  the  isthmus  at  the  narrowest 
part  of  Mexico,  covering  a  distance  of  only  192  miles, 
so  that  freight  received  from  one  ocean  will  be  able  to 
be  shipped  in  the  other  ocean  within  the  short  space 

288 


CARR  IBEAN 
SEA 


MiUb 


Panama 


PACIFIC      Ocean 


Reproduced  by  permission  of}  [the  Proprietors  of"  Traction  and  Transmission. 

The  American  Plan  for  completing  the  Panama  Canal. 

\_To  face  p.  28S. 


The  Panama  Canal 

of  twenty-four  hours.  Owing  to  necessary  windings 
in  places,  the  road  is  50  miles  longer  than  a  straight 
line  between  the  extreme  points.  In  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  country  in  some  parts,  particularly  on  the 
Pacific  side,  reaches  an  altitude  of  3000  feet,  the  highest 
elevation  of  the  track  is  but  852  feet  above  sea-level. 

The  harbour  works  are  expected  to  be  completed 
in  1904,  when  the  terminal  ports  of  Coatzacoalcos 
and  Salina  Cruz  will  be  converted  into  first-class 
sea-ports,  accessible  in  all  weathers.  At  the  former 
place  the  natural  harbour  is  good,  but  there  is  only 
15  feet  of  water  on  the  bar  at  low  tide.  Dredging 
operations  are  being  carried  on  to  give  the  channel 
a  depth  of  from  30  to  40  feet.  Along  the  river  front 
quays  two-thirds  of  a  mile  in  length  are  being  con- 
structed. At  Salina  Cruz  very  extensive  works  are 
necessary,  as  the  port  has  to  be  constructed  in  an 
open  bay,  with  breakwaters  similar  to  those  of  Vera 
Cruz.  The  Mexican  Government  intends  to  make  the 
towns  worthy  to  be  called  inter-oceanic  route  stations, 
and  to  render  them  as  healthy  as  possible  by  a  pure 
water-supply  and  enforced  regulations  for  the  paving 
and  cleansing  of  the  streets. 

The  Government  has  granted  a  concession  to  Sir 
Weetman  Pearson  to  construct  a  line  from  Ojapa  on 
the  Tehuantepec  Railway  to  Alvarado  on  the  river 
San  Juan,  which  is  already  in  direct  communication 
with  Mexico  City  vid  Vera  Cruz.  There  will  thus  be 
two  ports  on  the  Gulf  from  which  goods  can  be  for- 
warded to  Salina  Cruz  on  the  Pacific. 

280  T 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

The  prospects  of  the  Tehuantepec  Railway  may  be 
deduced  from  the  following  considerations.  In  the 
first  place,  the  Tehuantepec  Isthmus  is  1300  miles 
north  of  Panama,  and  therefore  much  nearer  the  trade 
centres  of  the  United  States  than  the  Canal  will  be. 
The  difference  in  mileage  between  certain  points  by 
the  railway  and  by  the  Canal  may  thus  be  stated  : — 


By  Tehuantepec. 

By  Panama 

Miles. 

Miles. 

New  York  to  San  Francisco    . 

4,925 

6,107 

New  York  to  Honolulu  . 

.          6,566 

7,705 

New  York  to  Hong-Kong 

.       ii»597 

12,645 

Liverpool  to  San  Francisco     . 

8,274 

9,071 

New  Orleans  to  Acapulco 

1,453 

3,983 

New  Orleans  to  San  Francisco 


5,596  3,586 


Though  Coatzacoalcos  on  the  Atlantic  is  800  miles 
south  of  New  Orleans  it  is  nearer  than  that  town  to 
San  Francisco. 

Secondly,  the  sea-to-sea  charges  of  the  Panama 
Railway  are  about  20s.  per  ton ;  of  the  United 
States  Railways  60s.  per  ton.  It  is  expected  that 
the  transference  will  be  made  on  the  Tehuantepec 
line  for  i6s. ;  and  if  to  this  be  added  los.  per 
ton  as  the  cost  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  journey  from 
Salina  Cruz  to  San  Francisco,  the  shipper  will  be 
able  to  pass  goods  from  the  latter  town  to  the  Gulf 
at  a  total  charge  of  26s.,  or  but  one  half  of  all- 
rail  transit  vid  Mexico  City  and  Vera  Cruz.  It  is 
obvious  from  these  figures  that  the  Panama  Railway, 

290 


The  Panama  Canal 

even  if  it  reduces  its  charges,  will  not  compete 
seriously  with  the  northern  route,  which,  at  least 
until  the  opening  of  the  Canal — an  event  not  likely 
to  occur  for  twelve  years  or  more — will  obtain  the 
bulk  of  the  ocean-to-ocean  carrying  trade. 

Note. — The  author  desires  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness 
to  two  articles  published  in  Traction  and  Transmission^  over 
the  signature  of  Mr.  J.  G.  Leigh,  for  information  about  the 
Project  for  Completion  of  the  Canal ;  and  to  Mr.  J.  Meldrum^ 
M.  Inst.  C.E.,  of  Messrs.  S.  Pearson  &  Son,  for  particulars  of 
the  Tehuantepec  Railway. 


291 


CHAPTER   XV 

HARBOURS   OF  REFUGE 

The  sky  is  dark  and  overcast ;  the  wind  whistles 
fiercely;  the  air  is  laden  with  spray.  Nature  is 
putting  out  her  strength,  lashing  the  sea  into  fury 
against  all  things  that  withstand  the  onset  of  her 
foam-crested  billows,  which  rush  landwards,  heavy 
with  the  force  gathered  in  open  ocean.  The  waves 
hurl  themselves  again  and  again  on  the  outer  face 
of  the  breakwater,  and  fall  back  baffled  on  to  their 
succeeding  fellows.  Every  few  seconds  the  charge 
is  renewed,  with  as  little  effect ;  for  the  great  mass 
of  granite  and  concrete  has  been  well  and  truly  laid 
by  cunning  engineers,  well-versed  in  the  methods  of 
curbing  the  rage  of  Father  Neptune. 

Outside  all  is  roar  and  motion ;  inside  the  protect- 
ing bulwark  ships  ride  securely,  heedless  of  the  minia- 
ture wavelets  that  trouble  the  peace  of  the  harbour. 
A  few  hours  ago,  maybe,  they  were  breasting  the 
billows,  shouldering  off  the  masses  of  grey  water  from 
bow  and  sides.  But  now,  guided  by  skilful  hands, 
they  have  safely  passed  the  narrow  entrance  and  won 
the  shelter  provided  for  them  by  the  foresight  of  those 
who  are  responsible  for  the  well-being  of  ships. 

To  deal  in  superlatives  is  often  risky,  but  we  may 
292 


Harbours  of  Refuge 

safely  premise  that  among  the  works  of  man  the  most 
romantic  are  those  brought  to  a  successful  issue  in 
salt  water.  The  long  list  of  failures  in  his  struggle 
with  the  sea  serves  but  to  enhance  his  brilliant 
successes.  Every  time  we  witness  a  great  storm 
our  thoughts  turn  to  the  heroism  of  Winstanley  and 
Smeaton  toiling  to  fix  upon  secure  foundations  light- 
giving  guardians  of  the  coast.  We  picture  again 
the  brave  Dutch  busy  in  the  breaches  in  their  dykes, 
desperately  hurling  down  fresh  material  to  stem  the 
threatened  inundation  of  their  low-lying  plains.  The 
tumbled  masses  of  rock  below  yonder  cliffs  remind 
us  how  patient  and  terrible  a  foe  is  the  sea  that  can 
dislodge  those  monster  fragments  from  their  solid 
bed. 

Perhaps  we  may  even  spare  a  thought  for  the 
engineers  who  planned  and  created  the  esplanade 
on  which  we  stand.  As  being  backed  by  mother 
earth  it  probably  appeals  to  our  imagination  less 
than  the  breakwater  waging  its  solitary  warfare  far 
to  sea.  But  a  consideration  of  the  immense  power 
of  the  waves,  seen  in  the  records  of  an  instrument 
named  the  marine  dynamometer,  will  show  us  how 
great  must  be  the  designing  skill,  and  how  thorough 
the  constructive  workmanship  required  to  erect  a 
structure  that  shall  for  many  years  defy  the  elements. 

The  dynamometer  consists  of  a  closed  cast-iron 
cylinder,  which  can  be  firmly  bolted  against  a  rock 
or  other  substance  exposed  to  the  violence  of  the 
waves.     Each  end  is  bored  with  a  number  of  holes 

293 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

to  accommodate  several  metal  rods  that  pass  right 
through,  and  project  both  ways  for  a  certain  distance. 
To  the  seaward  extremities  of  the  rod  is  attached  a 
circular  iron  plate  of  known  area,  which,  when  struck 
by  a  wave,  drives  in  the  rods,  and  extends  a  very 
powerful  steel  spring  inside  the  cylinder,  at  the  same 
time  causing  leather  collars  to  slide  up  the  guide 
rods  to  indicate  the  amount  of  extension.  At  Skerry- 
vore  Lighthouse,  in  the  Atlantic,  a  force  equivalent 
to  nearly  three  tons  per  square  foot  was  registered 
during  a  heavy  gale  in  1845  ;  and  on  the  coast  of 
Dunbar  the  figures  on  another  occasion  rose  to  three 
and  a  half  tons.  This  force  was  applied  instan- 
taneously, of  course,  with  sledge-hammer  effect. 

The  power  exerted  by  a  wave  on  a  large  surface 
must  therefore  be  immense.  We  can,  from  these 
records,  understand  why  great  blocks  are  torn  from 
their  settings  in  the  face  of  a  breakwater  or  sea-wall : 
and  why  masses  of  concrete  weighing  upwards  of  2000 
tons  are  sometimes  shifted  bodily  from  their  founda- 
tions. Nor  is  the  sea  satisfied  with  detaching  matter 
at  its  own  level,  for  on  storm-beaten  coasts  there 
may  be  seen  large  boulders  weighing  many  tons,  that 
have  been  quarried  out  of  the  solid  rock  at  heights 
approaching  100  feet  above  high  tide-mark. 

The  designing  of  harbours  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  branches  of  civil  engineering.  It  is  also 
one  of  the  most  important  to  a  country  like  Great 
Britain,  which  depends  for  its  commerce  on  sea-borne 
traffic.    The  value  of  a  large  mercantile  marine  would 

294 


Harbours  of  Refuge 

be  greatly  discounted  by  insufficient  harbours ;  and 
the  same  is  true  in  even  a  greater  degree  of  a  powerful 
fighting  fleet,  which  requires  shelters  on  many  points 
of  a  coast  line  where  no  great  commercial  activity 
may  be  shown.  And  it  so  happens  that  where  nature 
has  denied  a  refuge  strategical  conditions  often  de- 
mand that  an  artificial  one  of  great  extent  and 
security  shall  be  provided. 

During  recent  years  the  Great  Powers  have  been 
very  busy  with  the  construction  or  extension  of  their 
harbours. 

The  French  have  converted  a  portion  of  the  sandy 
Calais  strand  into  a  series  of  fine  docks  and  quays, 
and  greatly  enlarged  the  accommodation  at  Toulon 
and  Rochelle.  The  Germans  have  been  busy  at 
Wilhelmshaven.  Russia  can  boast  the  new  harbours 
of  Vladivostock  and  Port  Arthur;  Italy  that  of 
Trieste.  England  may  point  to  new  works  at  Port- 
land, Dover,  Gibraltar,  Keyham,  Simon's  Bay,  and 
Hong-Kong. 

The  English  harbours  named  are  primarily  strate- 
gical. Portland  Harbour  is  one  of  the  finest  artificial 
refuges  in  the  world.  In  1847  two  breakwaters  were 
commenced  to  close  the  Bay,  on  the  south  and  south- 
east, and  completed  by  convict  labour  in  1872.  The 
recent  works,  breakwaters  4465  and  4642  feet  long, 
have  been  added  to  secure  the  harbour  from  torpedo 
attack.  They  consist  of  rubble  mounds  deposited 
in  from  30  to  50  feet  of  water  by  special  hopper 
barges.    The  harbour  has  now  three  entrances  of  an 

295 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

aggregate  width  of  about  1800  feet  in  the  three  miles 
of  protecting  moles,  which  enclose  1500  acres  of 
water  30  feet  deep  at  low  tide. 

At  Dover  the  Admiralty  is  constructing  a  Naval 
Harbour  of  610  acres,  exclusive  of  the  Commercial 
Harbour  that  nestles  behind  the  same  defences.  The 
three  breakwaters  that  enclose  it  measure  2000,  4200, 
and  3320  feet  respectively ;  and  are  built  of  massive 
concrete  blocks,  arranged  so  as  to  form  a  nearly 
vertical  wall  from  the  chalk  at  the  harbour  bottom 
to  a  point  10  feet  above  high  water. 

At  Gibraltar,  works  of  almost  equal  size  have  pro- 
tected an  area  of  440  acres.  The  New  Mole,  on  the 
south,  has  been  extended  for  2700  feet  seawards.  On 
the  north  the  New  Commercial  Mole  runs  due  west 
for  about  4000  feet,  and  then  turns  southwards  at 
right  angles  to  its  original  course.  Between  the 
heads  of  these  two  moles  lies  the  Detached  Mole, 
which  is  a  good  example  of  modern  harbour  engineer- 
ing. Breakwaters  in  earlier  days  consisted  usually 
of  rubble  mounds  —  heaps  of  large  rough  stones 
thrown  into  the  sea,  and  left  to  the  consolidating 
action  of  the  waves.  Sometimes  on  the  summit  of 
the  mound  was  built  a  masonry  wall,  faced  with  hard 
granite.  The  construction  of  such  a  wall  proved, 
in  exposed  positions,  a  matter  of  great  difficulty,  as 
a  violent  storm  would  often  work  havoc  with  the 
unfinished  or  scar  end.  Engineers  therefore  en- 
deavoured to  imitate  nature  in  substituting  for  co- 
hesive  strength   in    their    structures    the    inertia   of 

2q6 


Harbours  of  Refuge 

weight  of  large  masses.  However  tightly  bound  and 
cemented  small  blocks  may  be,  water  has  a  way  of 
burrowing  in  between  them,  and  splitting  them  apart. 
The  smaller  the  block  the  larger  is  its  surface  in  pro- 
portion to  its  cubic  contents,  and  as  every  joint  is 
a  vulnerable  point  in  the  harness  of  a  breakwater,  the 
reduction  of  the  number  of  such  joints  is  obviously 
desirable. 

Consequently  we  find  the  harbour-builder  of  to- 
day handling  immense  blocks  upwards  of  50  tons  in 
weight,  and  laying  them  in  position  by  means  of 
very  powerful  cranes  called  Titans.  Steam,  improved 
machinery,  and  Portland  cement  have  revolutionised 
harbour  construction.  At  Gibraltar  the  Detached 
Mole  is  isolated  from  the  nearest  point  on  shore  by 
some  half  mile  of  water.  The  usual  rubble  mound 
having  been  formed  as  a  foundation,  a  box-shaped 
steel  caisson  was  constructed  in  England,  shipped  to 
Gibraltar,  re-erected,  floated  out,  sunk  on  the  rubble 
mound,  and  filled  in  with  concrete,  so  as  to  form 
a  mass  of  about  9000  tons  well  able  to  resist  the 
roughest  buffets  of  the  sea.  The  caisson  measured 
loi  feet  in  length  at  the  bottom,  and  74  at  the  top. 
It  was  33  feet  wide,  and  48J  feet  deep. 

Having  thus  provided  themselves  with  an  artificial 
rock  from  which  to  commence  block-setting  opera- 
tions, the  engineers  installed  a  Titan  crane.  This 
monster  could  handle  blocks  weighing  36  tons  at  a 
radius  of  75  feet  and  less;  and  yet  was  not  the 
largest  of  its  kind,  for  Titans  are  in  use  which  will 

297 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

pick  up  a  50-ton  block  and  lay  it  anywhere  within 
100  feet  of  the  central  pivot. 

The  Titan  is,  in  general  design,  a  very  powerful 
balanced  girder  or  cantilever,  swinging  horizontally 
on  the  summit  of  a  lofty  framework  provided  with 
wheels  to  run  on  a  line  of  broad  gauge.  On  the 
one  arm  are  stationed  the  boiler  and  winding  gear 
and  counterpoises  to  the  weight  to  be  lifted  at  the 
other  extremity.  Beneath  the  superstructure  is  a 
circular  roller-path  on  which  it  revolves.  Gear  is 
provided  which  communicates  motion  to  the  track 
wheels,  and  renders  the  Titan  self-moving. 

Barges  bring  the  great  concrete  blocks  from  the 
yard,  where  they  are  made  and  kept  a  long  time 
seasoning,  alongside  the  completed  portion  of  the 
Mole.  The  Titan  swings  round,  lets  fall  its  tackle, 
and  soon  has  the  block  stacked  on  the  wall  behind 
it  ready  for  use.  As  soon  as  the  barges  are  empty 
the  divers  descend  to  the  working  face  of  the  break- 
water to  adjust  the  blocks  as  the  Titan  lowers  them. 
The  first  or  lowest  course  is  the  longest,  that  is,  it 
extends  farthest  horizontally  from  the  Titan,  which 
when  dealing  with  it  must  take  full  advantage  of  its 
great  reach.  Each  ascending  course  approaches  one 
step  nearer  to  the  steel  giant,  the  top  course  being 
just  in  front  of  his  feet.  When  a  sufficient  number 
of  layers  have  been  added  rails  are  laid  down,  the 
driver  connects  up  the  steam-gear  with  the  track- 
wheels,  and  the  Titan  rolls  slowly  forward  a  few 
paces  over  the  blocks  that  a  short  time  before  were 

298 


-^ 


Harbours  of  Refuge 

being  dangled  in  the  air.  Meanwhile  a  second  Titan 
has  found  room  to  work  back  to  back  with  its  brother, 
and  the  work  is  pushed  forwards  in  both  directions 
simultaneously,  until  the  last  blocks  are  in  position 
and  Gibraltar  owns  a  protection  proof  against  the 
fiercest  gale. 

Far  away  from  "Gib,"  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  a 
wonderful  harbour  has  just  been  completed  at  Vera 
Cruz,  "  the  great  mart  of  European  and  Oriental  trade, 
the  commercial  capital  of  New  Spain."  The  spot  is 
historically  famous  as  that  at  which  Cortes  and  his 
brave  little  army  landed  in  15 19  to  commence  the 
conquest  of  Mexico.  The  roadstead  was  until  recently 
notorious  as  one  of  the  most  dangerous  on  the  Ameri- 
can coast,  for  the  norte,  or  "norther,"  sweeping  the 
waves  across  the  Gulf,  drove  many  a  vessel  to  destruc- 
tion on  the  coral  reefs  that  partially  encircle  the  bay. 
''During  a  norther  which  blew  in  the  year  185 1, 
thirteen  ships  were  wrecked  in  the  Vera  Cruz  road- 
stead. This  was  no  doubt  an  extreme  incident,  yet 
every  ship  entering  Vera  Cruz  during  the  norther 
season  was  constantly  exposed  to  the  same  fate.  It 
may  be  said  that  eternal  vigilance  only  was  the  price 
of  safety.  Every  ship  during  the  dangerous  season, 
before  the  portworks  were  commenced,  was  obliged 
to  keep  up  full  steam  in  order  to  be  able  to  put  out  to 
sea  at  a  moment's  notice  on  the  first  indication  of  an 
approaching  norther,  and  had,  moreover,  even  under 
favourable  conditions  of  weather,  constantly  to  keep 
its  propeller  gently  working  in  order  to  ease  the  strain 

299 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

on  its  moorings.  In  addition,  all  loading  and  unload- 
ing of  merchandise  had  to  be  done  (when  it  could  be 
done  at  all,  and  that  was  in  absolutely  fair  weather 
only)  by  means  of  lighters,  as  there  was  no  pier  with 
sufficient  depth  of  water  alongside  to  enable  ships  to 
use  it  for  loading  or  discharging  their  cargo.  A  very 
slight  breeze  was  sufficient  to  stop  all  work  in  the  port. 
The  loss  of  time  by  this  primitive  method  of  handling 
cargoes  was  only  one  drawback,  as  the  item  of  expense 
due  to  repeated  handlings,  loss  and  damage  to  the 
goods,  was  also  very  great.  When,  owing  to  hurry 
or  the  necessity  of  sailing  at  a  given  time,  a  captain 
persisted  in  unloading  his  vessel  when  a  moderate 
breeze  was  blowing,  it  was  no  uncommon  occurrence 
for  the  cargo,  when  craned  over  the  vessel's  side,  to 
go  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea  instead  of  on  board  the 
lighter.  In  a  word,  the  visit  of  a  vessel  to  Vera  Cruz 
was  a  source  of  anxiety  to  its  captain,  its  owners,  and 
the  consignees  of  merchandise,  until  the  latter  was  safe 
on  land."  ^ 

But  Vera  Cruz  had  long  been  recognised  as  the 
port  of  Mexico  on  the  Atlantic.  To  it  railways  ran 
from  the  capital  far  away  in  the  mountains  vid  Tlax- 
cala,  Puebla,  Cordoba  and  Xalapa.  Under  the  leader- 
ship of  President  Porfirio  Diaz,  the  Maker  of  Mexico, 
the  spirit  of  modern  enterprise  has  been  awakened  in 
the  land  of  the  Aztecs.  As  soon  as  social  and  finan- 
cial order  had  been  restored  by  President  Diaz,  public 
attention  was  turned  to  the  improvement  of  the  port. 

1  From  a  descriptive  Memoir  of  Vera  Cruz  Port  Works. 
300 


Harbours  of  Refuge 

In  1882,  Captain  Eads,  the  gifted  American  engineer, 
submitted  plans  for  checking  the  fury  of  the  "nor- 
ther " ;  and  in  the  same  year  the  first  block  was  laid 
in  the  rear  of  the  old  Castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulua. 

The  accompanying  plan  will  explain  the  positions 
of  the  various  parts  of  this  great  undertaking,  which 
in  connection  with  new  quays  and  piers  cost 
;£3,ooo,ooo  (|i5,ooo,ooo).  The  coast-line  faces  N.N.E. 
To  the  north  lies  the  coral  reef  of  Gallega,  on  which 
rises  the  castle  of  San  Juan ;  to  the  east  the  Hornos 
reef,  to  the  west  the  reef  of  La  Caleta. 

Captain  Eads  and  subsequent  contractors  built  the 
North  Mole,  running  north-west  from  San  Juan ;  and 
that,  together  with  the  line  of  "  random  blocks  "  laid 
on  the  north-west,  constituted  the  sum  total  of  opera- 
tions in  1895,  when  Messrs.  S.  Pearson  &  Son,  of 
London,  signed  a  contract  for  the  completion  of  the 
protective  works,  and  the  conversion  of  Vera  Cruz 
into  a  first-class  artificial  port,  equal  to  any  in  the 
world,  and  equipped  with  every  modern  facility. 

The  breakwaters  include  one  on  the  north-west 
inside  that  of  Don  Agustin  Cerdon  referred  to  above, 
another  on  the  north-east  to  the  east  of  the  Gallega 
reef,  and  a  third  on  the  south-east,  extending  from 
the  shore  to  the  Lavandera  reef.  These  close  the 
harbour  to  the  sea,  except  between  the  San  Juan 
Castle  and  the  north  end  of  the  north  breakwater, 
and  at  the  port  entrance  between  the  north-east  and 
south-east  breakwaters. 

The  north-west  breakwater  was  completed  by  de- 
301 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

positing  a  rubble  mound  inside  the  random  blocks 
already  in  position.  Trestles  (of  creosoted  piles)  were 
first  built  i6  feet  above  low  water,  to  carry  trains 
laden  with  stones.  As  fast  as  the  mound  reached 
low-water  level,  it  was  topped  with  two  courses  of 
35-ton  blocks  laid  by  a  Titan  ;  and  these,  after  being 
allowed  to  settle  for  two  "  norther  "  seasons,  were 
capped  with  a  concrete  coping.  This  breakwater  is 
1200  yards  long.  The  north  wall,  which  it  joins,  is 
a  concrete  monolith  laid  on  the  top  of  the  Gallega 
reef  for  550  yards. 

The  north-east  breakwater  afforded  the  most  diffi- 
cult part  of  the  undertaking,  since  on  it  the  storms 
burst  with  full  violence.  On  one  occasion  a  Titan 
crane,  weighing  over  360  tons,  was  carried  away  by  a 
stiff  norther  and  flung  into  the  harbour,  from  which 
it  was  recovered  after  several  unsuccessful  attempts. 
The  seaward  face  of  the  wall  is  protected  by  a  large 
number  of  concrete  blocks  thrown  in  at  random.  The 
rubble  foundation,  26  feet  deep,  and  rising  to  about 
10  feet  below  low- water  level,  was  carefully  levelled 
by  divers  and  surmounted  by  three  courses  of  sloping 
blocks  and  a  concrete  coping.  Its  length  is  about 
800  yards,  and  its  average  width  34  yards. 

The  south-east  member  is  almost  entirely  rubble 
work,  with  a  single  line  of  blocks  at  its  apex.  This 
wall  is  nearly  1000  yards  long.  As  a  further  means  of 
defence  against  the  prevailing  south  wind,  the  plans 
included  an  inner  protection  about  1080  yards  inside 
the  south-east  breakwater,  which  forms  part  of,  and 

302 


Harbours  of  Refuge 

projects  at  right-angles  to,  the  town  quay.  The 
portion  of  the  harbour  between  these  two  protecting 
walls  is  used  for  the  anchorage  of  small  craft. 

The  harbour  was  cleared  to  a  depth  of  26  feet  by 
means  of  large  and  powerful  dredgers,  and  an  extra 
depth  of  5  feet  given  to  a  belt  extending  from  the 
harbour  entrance  to  the  main  town  quay.  Some  of 
the  sand  dredged  was  employed  to  reclaim  the  ground 
on  which  the  quay  now  stands,  430  yards  from  the 
natural  low- water  line.^  For  the  construction  of  the 
quay  a  trench  was  dredged,  and  a  rubble  stone  founda- 
tion formed  and  carefully  levelled  by  divers.  Upon 
this  the  same  men  built  up  concrete  blocks  to  a  height 
of  2  feet  above  low  water,  from  which  level  solid  con- 
crete and  Norwegian  granite  raised  it  to  a  convenient 
altitude  for  shipping.  A  number  of  piers  for  shipping 
extend  into  the  harbour  at  right  angles  to  the  town 
quay  :  one  much  larger  than  the  rest,  400  yards  long 
by  108  yards  broad,  affording  room  for  seven  of  the 
largest  vessels  that  visit  Vera  Cruz  to  unload  at  the 
same  time.  This  pier  was  built  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  quay — by  first  raising  a  solid  wall  round  its 
outer  edge,  and  then  filling  the  interior  with  sand 
pumped  from  the  harbour.  Eight  railway  tracks 
traversing  the  quay  serve  to  convey  merchandise  to 
the  Mexican  trunk  lines. 

"As  the  shipping  interests  of  Vera  Cruz  increase 

^  During  the  dredging  operations  iron  and  stone  cannon-balls,  bayonets, 
sabres,  pistols,  arquebuses,  and  doubloons  were  constantly  being  brought 
up,  silent  reminders  of  the  heroic  days  of  the  Spanish  conquerors. 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

(and  assuredly  they  will  do  so  rapidly),  greater  wharf- 
age, quayage,  and  storage  than  the  present  liberal 
facilities  in  this  respect  will  be  necessary,  and  here 
again  the  foresight  of  the  Government  has  been  equal 
to  the  occasion,  for  sites  have  been  provided  for  the 
construction  of  a  practically  indefinite  number  of  new 
quays  and  customs  warehouses. 

"  Finally,  the  terminal  company,  which  is  now  being 
formed,  and  which,  it  is  believed,  will  consist  of  the 
four  railway  companies  operating  into  Vera  Cruz,  will 
provide  such  facilities,  under  Government  supervision 
and  control,  that  in  a  short  time  from  now  it  will  be 
no  unusual  thing  for  ships  to  discharge  looo  tons  of 
freight  per  working  day." 

So  many  references  have  been  made  in  the  above 
pages  to  concrete  blocks  that  a  visit  to  the  yards 
where  they  were  made  will  be  interesting.  The  three 
yards  were  ij  miles  long.  In  them,  on  concrete 
floors  carefully  levelled,  stand  rows  of  great  boxes 
with  removable  sides.  Small  tramways  running  over 
the  rows  convey  in  skips  the  concrete — one  part  of 
pure  Portland  cement  to  five  or  six  parts  of  broken 
stone  and  sand.  All  day  long  gangs  of  men  work 
at  the  mixing  machines  where  the  concrete  is  made 
for  pouring  into  the  box-moulds  from  the  laden 
skips.  The  moulds  are  so  many  hungry  maws,  each 
the  height  of  a  man,  and  some  a  dozen  feet  long 
by  6  broad.  When  full,  the  concrete  is  allowed  to 
solidify  until  it  is  firm  enough  for  the  box  walls  to 
be  removed  to  some  other  part  of  the  yard,  leaving 

304 


By  pcnnission  o/] 


[l^Iessrs.  S.  Pearson  &  Son. 


A    Giant  Crane   laying   35-fo//   Blocks   on   one   of  the   Bvcakwaters   at 
Vera  Cruz  Harbour. 

[To  face  p.  304. 


Harbours  of  Refuge 

the  giant  bricks  to  harden  until  a  great  Goliath  crane 
rolls  overhead,  snatches  them  up,  and  stacks  them  in 
readiness  for  transference  to  trucks  and  barges.  As 
we  read  that  3000  tons  of  Portland  cement  were 
always  kept  in  stock,  the  total  weight  of  the  contents 
of  the  yards  may  be  imagined. 

Besides  the  artificial  blocks  great  quantities  of 
natural  stone  were  required  for  the  port  works.  The 
nearest  quarries  of  suitable  stone  were  at  Pefiuela,  60 
miles  distant  on  the  Mexican  Railway.  Special 
arrangements  having  been  made  for  a  regular  stone- 
train  service,  as  many  as  450  tons  of  stone  were  in 
busy  times  transported  from  the  quarries  to  the 
harbour  every  day.  Large  cranes,  air-compressors, 
pneumatic  drills,  crushing  machinery,  and  houses  for 
the  accommodation  of  workmen  had  to  be  erected  in 
the  quarries,  a  special  water-supply  laid  on,  and 
several  miles  of  track  put  down.  To  detach  sufficient 
quantities  of  rock,  blasting  on  a  large  scale  was 
resorted  to.  On  one  occasion  40  tons  of  dynamite 
and  powder  exploded  simultaneously,  and  broke  away 
a  mass  calculated  to  contain  200,000  tons.  At  another 
of  the  large  blasts  the  people  of  the  village  had 
assembled  to  witness  the  explosion  and  be  included 
in  the  photograph  taken  after  each  important  '^  shot." 
Some  minutes  after  the  explosion  the  people  ran  to 
the  face  of  the  quarry  to  see  the  effects,  and  en- 
countered the  poisonous  gas  generated  by  the  ex- 
plosive, which,  owing  to  the  sultriness  of  the  weather, 
had  not  been  dissipated,  and  hung  over  a  considerable 

305  u 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

tract  round  the  quarry.  As  soon  as  the  crowd 
reached  the  gas-laden  air-stratum  they  fell  uncon- 
scious. Out  of  eighty-three  persons  dangerously 
affected  no  less  than  twenty-six  died ;  and,  as  though 
to  heighten  the  tragedy,  a  small  band  of  Rurales,  or 
police,  who  had  galloped  to  the  rescue,  were  also 
overpowered^  two  of  their  number  and  all  their  horses 
fatally.  Such  an  occurrence  is  probably  unique 
among  the  annals  of  rock-blasting.  It  supplies  the 
one  dark  episode  in  the  bright  chapter  of  a  great 
work  brought  to  a  successful  conclusion. 

As  a  result  of  the  fine  contract  carried  out  by 
Messrs.  S.  Pearson  &  Son  a  vessel  can  ride  out  the 
most  furious  "  norther  "  in  complete  safety.  Vessels 
moored  alongside  modern  piers  furnished  with  proper 
mechanical  equipments  can  discharge  their  cargoes  at 
all  seasons  directly  into  railroad  cars  at  a  fraction  of 
the  cost  of  the  old  system,  and  embark  goods  sent 
down  to  the  port  from  all  the  railway-fed  dep6ts  in  the 
Mexican  Republic.  The  town,  covering  ground  once 
scourged  by  the  dreaded  vomito^  is  now  traversed  in 
all  directions  by  large  sewers  and  water-mains,  the 
former  discharging  through  a  pipe  built  in  the  north- 
west breakwater  into  deep  sea  beyond  the  Galega 
reef,  the  latter  deriving  their  supplies  from  the 
Jamapa  River.  It  is  significant  of  the  spirit  animat- 
ing the  Mexican  Government  that  it  willingly  sanc- 
tioned the  great  expenditure  necessary  to  complete 
these  important  sanitary  works,  and  with  commend- 
able foresight  has  made  provision  for  a  much  larger 

306 


Harbours  of  Refuge 

population  than  at  present  inhabits  the  port.  The 
time  is  not  far  distant  when  Vera  Cruz  will  become 
the  Brighton  or  Margate  of  Mexico,  as  well  as  its 
Liverpool.  Here  the  jaded  citizen  of  the  capital  will 
fill  his  lungs  with  the  fresh  sea  breezes,  bathe,  row, 
stroll  on  the  breakwater,  watch  the  cosmopolitan 
crowd  that  is  to  be  found  in  a  busy  seaport,  or  visit 
the  antiquities  of  the  castle  of  San  Juan.  And  he  will 
praise  the  Government  when  he  looks  round  on  the 
great  portworks  for  having  placed  Mexico  a  step  or 
two  higher  on  the  ladder  of  Progress,  up  which  she  is 
steadily  climbing. 


307 


CHAPTER  XVI 

OCEAN  LEVIATHANS 

In  1858  the  genius  of  Brunei  sprang  a  wonder  upon 
the  world.  The  monster  steamship  constructed  at 
Millwall  from  his  designs,  by  Mr.  Scott  Russell,  was 
not  merely  an  advance  upon  all  that  had  gone  before, 
a  Gulliver  among  pigmies ;  she  was  an  anachronism. 

One  of  the  first  liners  to  be  built  of  iron,  which  was 
but  slowly  superseding  wood,  and  to  be  driven  by  the 
newly  developed  screw,  combined  in  this  case  with 
powerful  paddle-wheels,  the  Great  Eastern  was  also 
a  sudden  expansion  in  dimensions  and  capacity  which 
held  the  record  for  nearly  fifty  years.  Yet  she  was 
doomed  from  her  very  inception  to  be  a  gigantic 
failure,  the  frequent  fate  of  enterprises  born  before 
their  due  time. 

Her  keel  was  laid  on  May  i,  1854,  and  after  three 
years'  labour,  during  which  30,000  iron  plates  were 
fastened  upon  the  hull  by  means  of  3,000,000  rivets, 
the  great  ship  was  ready  to  be  launched  in  November 
1857.  Owing  to  an  ill-advised  attempt  to  retard  her 
motion  down  the  slips,  the  chain-winding  machinery 
gave  way  and  the  launch  proved  abortive  ;  but  she 
was  successfully  floated  in  1858,  and  took  her  trial 
trip   down  the  river  and  round  the  coast.     Opposite 

308 


Ocean  Leviathans 

Hastings  a  case-pipe  feeder  burst,  causing  some  loss 
of  life  among  the  crew,  and  doing  local  damage  to  the 
extent  of  several  thousand  pounds,  one  funnel  being 
blown  50  feet  high  into  the  air.  The  vessel  was 
otherwise  unaffected  by  the  shock,  was  found  to  be 
rigid  and  steady  in  a  heavy  sea,  and  finally  put  into 
Portland  for  repairs. 

In  i860  her  maiden  voyage  to  New  York,  where 
she  received  an  ovation,  marked  the  beginning  of  an 
era.  For  though  years  elapsed  before  engineers 
again  dared  to  project  anything  approaching  the 
Great  Eastern  in  size,  it  had  been  conclusively  demon- 
strated that  an  iron  steamship  of  vast  proportions, 
laden  with  passengers  and  cargo,  could,  in  spite  of 
all  prophecies  to  the  contrary,  triumph  over  the 
perils  of  the  Atlantic  and  make  good  time  as  a  mail 
carrier.  Her  very  faults  of  design  have  been  an 
example  to  guide  inventors  towards  the  masterly  lines 
of  our  modern  "  ocean  greyhounds." 

The  Great  Easterns  accommodation  was  conceived 
upon  a  scale  of  magnificence  hitherto  undreamed  of. 
Between  uprights  she  was  680  feet  long,  but  her 
upper  deck  gave  12  feet  extra  length  ;  and  her  width 
of  82  feet  6  inches  was  expanded  by  the  platforms  of 
the  immense  paddle-boxes  to  119  feet.  In  height  she 
towered  60  feet  above  her  keel,  half  of  this  being 
submerged  when  loaded,  though  she  drew  only  20 
feet  of  water  in  ballast.  Five  great  funnels  100  feet 
high,  and  six  lofty  tapering  masts,  fitted  with  square 
spars  that   carried   an   enormous   spread   of   canvas, 

309 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

rose  above  the  massive  hull  and  rendered  her  the 
most  imposing  vessel  that  ever  rode  the  seas. 

Her  internal  arrangements  were  worthy  of  this 
majestic  exterior.  She  was  built  upon  the  cellular 
principle,  that  is,  she  consisted  of  an  inner  and  outer 
hull,  both  iron-plated,  some  2  feet  10  inches  apart, 
up  to  3  feet  above  the  water-line ;  and  the  interior 
was  divided  into  nineteen  separate  compartments, 
twelve  of  which  were  water-tight  and  the  others 
nearly  so.  Her  principal  saloon  was  100  feet  long, 
36  feet  wide  and  13  feet  high,  the  whole  centre 
of  the  ship  being  given  up  to  saloon  and  cabin 
accommodation,  carefully  protected  from  disturbing 
noise  or  vibration  of  the  engines.  Fittings  and 
decorations  were  on  the  most  lavish  scale,  initiating 
the  luxurious  appointments  of  the  present  day. 

Eight  hundred  first-class  passengers  were  provided 
for,  2000  second-class,  and  1000  third-class ;  while,  in 
case  of  emergency,  she  could  pack  10,000  troops 
on  board  without  restricting  their  ordinary  space  for 
quarters.  The  ship's  complement  was  400  men  all 
told,  and  the  coal-bunkers  carried  12,000  tons  (enough 
to  take  her  to  Australia  or  India  and  back  without 
re-coaling),  besides  the  6000  tons  of  cargo  to  be 
stowed  in  the  holds. 

This  immense  weight  had  for  motive  power  ten 
boilers,  weighing  50  tons  each,  divided  among 
separate  sets  of  engines,  some  of  which  worked  a 
screw-propeller  25  feet  in  diameter,  while  the  others 
turned  the  gigantic  paddle-wheels,  each  56  feet  across, 

310 


From  a  photo  lent  by] 


[the  While  Star  Liners  Co. 


A  Stern  View  of  the  ''Celtic"  in  Dry-dock. 

This  huge  vessel  is  inferior  in  size  onl}^  to  her  sister  ship,  the  Cedric.  Her  displacement 
is  20,900  tons.  Besides  15,000  tons  of  cargo  she  carries  3,000  passengers.  The  size  of 
her  immense  twin  screws  may  be  gauged  by  comparison  with  the  man  in  the 
foreground. 

[To /(lev  /•.  310. 


Ocean  Leviathans 

and  weighing  185  tons.  Twelve  tons  of  coal  per  hour 
were  consumed,  but  the  speed  hardly  exceeded  14 
knots,  though  a  considerably  better  result  had  been 
anticipated.  The  i.h.p.  of  the  paddle-engines  was 
3000  normal  to  5000  under  full  pressure,  and  that 
of  the  screw-engines  could  be  raised  from  4000  under 
ordinary  pressure  to  6500  when  desired. 

We  need  not  follow  the  Great  Easterns  eventful  his- 
tory, which  will  be  fresh  in  most  minds.  How  one 
steamship  Company  after  another  collapsed  in  em- 
ploying her  for  her  original  purpose ;  then  the  useful 
work  which  she  did  for  years  as  a  cable-laying  ship 
between  England  and  America,  India,  &c. ;  finally, 
her  most  unqualified  success,  when  she  was  chartered 
as  a  show  at  Liverpool.  In  1886-87,  her  hull  and 
machinery  being  still  quite  sound,  though  somewhat 
"  off  colour "  with  long  neglect,  she  was  sold  piece- 
meal. An  auction  of  scrap-iron  and  old  timber ! 
Such  is  the  last  scene  in  which  figures  this  extra- 
ordinary feat  of  marine  engineering,  after  thirty  years 
of  such  vicissitudes  as  surely  no  other  ship  has  ever 
experienced  !  Nor  are  any  of  the  creations  of  our 
own  day  likely  to  pass  through  so  romantically 
chequered  an  existence. 

The  failure  of  Brunei's  Great  Eastern  as  a  com- 
mercial speculation  gave  pause  to  other  inventors  for 
many  years.  Modest  liners  of  7000  to  8000  tons  con- 
tinued to  bear  the  ocean  traffic,  and  not  till  1889 
was  a  displacement  expressed  in  five  figures  again 
attempted.      A  re-action,  however,  in  the  direction 

311 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

of  large  passenger  ships  has  set  in  and  grown  steadily 
since  the  City  of  Paris y  with  her  10,670  tons,  found 
favour  in  1889 ;  and  upon  the  memorable  appearance 
of  the  Oceanic  in  1899  the  Great  Eastern  was  at  last 
actually  exceeded  both  in  length  and  tonnage. 

Most  of  the  great  express  steamers,  to  whatever 
nation  they  belong,  are  subsidised  by  their  respective 
governments  to  be  used  as  swift  cruisers  in  time  of 
war.  They  are,  therefore,  so  constructed  that  the 
concussion  of  heavy  artillery  may  not  endanger  their 
stability,  while  the  double  bottom  and  water-tight 
compartments  reduce  the  results  of  any  accident  to 
the  hull  to  a  minimum.  The  framework  of  these 
grand  liners,  which  bear  to  and  fro  such  a  precious 
living  freight,  is  as  massive  and  rigid  as  that  of  a 
man-o'-war ;  and  where  iron  was  employed  a  few 
years  ago  we  now  find  castings  of  the  finest  tempered 
steel,  nickel,  and  bronze.  Only  the  best  and  most 
modern  materials  and  appliances  are  used,  everything 
being  brought  from  year  to  year  most  rigorously 
*^  up-to-date."  And  every  measurement  to  the  min- 
utest particular,  every  line  or  curve  of  framing  or 
plating,  every  detail  of  weight  and  form  required  for 
the  interior  or  fittings,  is  calculated  and  worked  out 
on  paper  before  the  keel  of  the  new  vessel  is  laid  upon 
the  building-slips. 

The  first  process  undertaken  in  the  shipyards,  there- 
fore, after  the  draughtsmen's  designs  and  computa- 
tions have  been  completed,  is  the  drawing  or  scriving 
of  the  proposed  vessel's  frame  to  the  exact  dimensions 

312 


Ocean  Leviathans 

of  the  matured  plan.  This  is  done  in  a  shed  or  loft 
whose  floor  is  an  immense  scrive-board,  upon  which 
the  precise  form  of  every  frame  in  the  ship  is  sketched 
to  scale,  and  full-sized  moulds  or  shapes  are  pre- 
pared. Near  at  hand  is  an  iron  platform  with  fur- 
naces attached  large  enough  to  contain  the  whole  of 
a  ship's  rib,  though  it  may  be  over  60  feet  long.  The 
frame  and  bars  being  heated  till  malleable,  are  drawn 
from  the  furnace  on  to  the  iron  floor  and  there  bent 
into  the  required  shape  between  pegs  previously 
arranged.  But  before  this  final  bending  the  frame 
has  been  punched  for  rivets,  and  cut  to  the  right 
length,  and  frequently  its  edges  have  been  bevelled 
while  it  is  hot.  The  punching,  shearing,  and  bevel- 
ling machines  are  therefore  also  arranged  in  close 
proximity  to  the  furnaces  and  platform.  The  angle- 
bars  are  similarly  punched  and  finished.  The  beams 
are  prepared  in  the  same  fashion,  their  holes  punched, 
and  knees  or  angles  formed  at  the  ends,  after  which 
they  are  bevelled  and  curved. 

By  this  time  the  keel  has  been  fashioned  and  laid 
at  the  bottom  of  the  building-berth,  other  keelsons 
being  laid  parallel  with  it  and  girders  or  stringers 
between  them.  As  the  ribs  are  ready  they  are 
brought  to  the  slips  and  riveted  each  into  its  ap- 
pointed place  transversely  to  the  keelsons ;  the  beams 
(or  horizontal  frames)  overhead  holding  the  outer 
framework  in  shape,  while  wooden  ribbands  are 
bolted  temporarily  to  the  frames  to  "  fair "  the 
whole  structure  to  its  correct  form.    The  water-tight 

313 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

bulkheads,  that  is,  the  partitions  which  divide  up  the 
interior  of  the  ship  into  compartments,  having  been 
worked  elsewhere,  are  also  brought  up  and  adjusted, 
helping  to  give  strength  and  rigidity.  Most  of  them 
are  placed  across  the  hull,  which  is,  however,  also 
divided  longitudinally  for  a  great  part  of  its  length. 

ThQ  framings  or  first  part  of  the  construction,  may 
now  be  considered  complete,  the  whole  outline  of  the 
vessel  standing  ready  in  skeleton  for  the  second 
operation  oi  plating. 

The  huge  iron  or  steel  plates — often  30  feet  in 
length — which,  attached  to  the  ribs,  form  the  shell 
plating,  and  to  the  beams  the  deck  plating,  have  mean- 
while been  cast  from  moulds  or  templates  previously 
made  of  the  exact  size  and  marked  with  holes  "cor- 
responding to  those  in  the  framing.  The  position  of 
the  holes  being  transferred  from  the  mould  to  the 
plate,  they  are  punched  out  and  the  edges  of  the 
plate  then  sheared.  The  edges  and  butts  have  also 
to  be  planed  and  the  rivet  holes  countersunk ;  while 
in  some  cases  the  plate  must  be  bent  before  use. 
This  is  done  in  a  machine  containing  three  rollers, 
two  of  which  receive  the  plate  between  them ;  the 
third  roller  is  then  raised  (or  lowered)  against  the 
free  part,  till  its  pressure — several  times  repeated — 
gives  the  desired  curve  without  any  reheating  being 
necessary.  Some  shipbuilders  also  treat  the  edges  of 
the  plates  by  a  system  called  "  joggling/'  for  which 
special  machinery  is  provided,  which  bends  them  to 
overlap  in   such  a  manner  that  no  strips  of  lining 

314 


Ocean  Leviathans 

metal  are  required.  Thus  a  saving  is  effected  both 
of  labour  and  of  extra  weight  in  construction. 

The  plate  now  is  ready  for  incorporation  into  the 
growing  vessel.  It  is  lifted  to  its  place  by  mechanical 
power,  the  red-hot  rivets  are  dropped  into  their 
holes,  and  a  few  blows  of  a  riveting  hammer  spread 
and  secure  their  ends.  Plate  by  plate  the  out- 
side of  the  vessel  is  covered  with  its  metal  skin ; 
the  edges  of  the  plates  are  minutely  faired  and 
caulked ;  the  inner  hull,  or  false  bottom,  is  similarly 
treated ;  then  the  beams  receive  their  complement  of 
plating  and  the  decks  spring  into  existence.  The 
shell  is  complete,  and  awaits  its  motive  power  and 
interior  fittings. 

But  we  will  pause  a  moment  to  consider  the  means 
by  which  these  various  processes  of  manufacture 
have  been  carried  through.  Hand- worked  machinery 
is  rapidly  being  superseded  by  wonderfully  ingenious 
and  powerful  machines  run  either,  by  steam-engines, 
by  hydraulic  or  pneumatic  power,  or  by  electricity. 
A  combination  punching  and  shearing  machine  is 
generally  employed,  having  gaps^  deep  enough  to 
take  half  the  width  of  the  largest  plates  required. 
The  plate  (often  supported  by  chains)  is  mechanically 
fed  through  the  gap,  but  two  or  three  workmen  may 

1  To  explain  the  word  "gap,"  it  should  be  stated  that  the  machines  for 
punching,  riveting,  &c.,  resemble  somewhat  in  shape  a  common  fret-saw, 
the  light  framework  being  replaced  by  castings  of  enormous  strength. 
The  gap  is  the  distance  between  the  tool  (which  occupies  the  position  of 
the  jaws  gripping  the  saw)  and  the  inner  side  of  the  back  of  the  bow. 
The  gap  of  a  fret-saw  is  rather  more  than  a  foot. 

315 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

be  needed  to  guide  it  and  to  regulate  the  distance  of 
the  holes,  which  are  stamped  out  by  the  punch  falling 
sharply  against  a  die. 

Certain  machines  working  horizontally  are  used 
for  angle-bars  and  beams ;  therefore  they  do  not  need 
a  wide  gap,  and  are  often  combined  with  an  apparatus 
for  bending  and  straightening  the  beams  and  bars, 
and  with  shears  for  cutting  angles.  Farther  on  we 
see  one  of  the  multiple  punches  which  can  stamp 
forty-seven  holes  at  a  time  through  ^^-inch  plates, 
most  valuable  for  tank-work,  pontoons,  and  so  on. 

For  all  large  and  heavy  work  hydraulic  power  is 
greatly  in  request  throughout  those  countries  whose 
winter  cold  is  not  severe  enough  to  impede  its  use. 
We  therefore  find  it  much  employed  in  English  ship- 
yards for  such  operations  as  punching  man-holes, 
flanging  plates,  or  hoisting  and  riveting  large  super- 
ficies. One  of  these  heavy  hydraulic  presses  can  do 
flanging  and  joggling,  and  also  punch  manholes 
21  inches  by  i8  inches  through  plates  f  inch  thick. 
Another  punches  ij-inch  holes  in  ij-inch  plates 
36  inches  from  the  edge  at  one  end,  while  at  the  other 
end  it  shears  similar  plates  33  inches  from  the  edge 
between  two  steel  plates  set  at  the  required  angle  ; 
and  an  arrangement  in  the  body  of  the  machine 
enables  it  to  cut  channels  and  tees,  or  to  chop  through 
angle-bars  6  inches  by  6  inches  by  f  inch  in  dimensions. 

Yonder  massive  machine  surmounted  by  huge 
wheels  is  equally  versatile  and  still  more  powerful. 
It  quietly  bends  cold  iron  beams  from  12  inches  to 

316 


Ocean  Leviathans 

l6  inches  deep,  works  a  big  horizontal  punch,  and 
with  two  sets  of  shears  cuts  angles  and  notches  to 
any  section.  This  one  with  42-inch-deep  gaps  can 
stamp  two  holes  i  inch  wide  through  i-inch  steel  at 
each  blow ;  and  the  other  with  two  gaps  48  inches  deep 
punches  rivet  holes  and  cuts  notches  in  stringer- 
plates  10  inches  by  8  inches  by  |  inch. 

Not  far  from  these  is  the  long  plate-edge  planing 
machine,  which  takes  an  easy  cut  off  a  2-inch  plate, 
planing  24  feet  at  a  stretch.  Those  long  arms 
with  drills  operating  from  them  are  the  counter- 
sinking machines,  used  in  groups  that  they  may  get 
to  work  simultaneously  upon  the  same  plate  in  order 
to  save  time,  as  the  greater  proportion  of  rivet  holes 
require  this  treatment.  We  notice  in  passing  that  the 
heavy  bevelling  machines,  which  have  to  manipulate 
the  bars  or  angle-iron  while  hot,  are  mounted  upon 
rails  to  facilitate  their  being  run  up  to  the  mouth  of 
the  furnace. 

The  plate-bending  machines  already  mentioned  are 
still  more  elaborate  in  structure,  and  consequently 
very  expensive  ;  indeed,  they  may  cost  anything  up  to 
;^5ooo.  Whether  working  horizontally  or  vertically 
they  have  to  be  extremely  powerful,  the  rollers  often 
needing  to  be  braced  by  strong  girders  carrying  inter- 
mediate rollers  lest  they  should  be  buckled  them- 
selves. Those  made  for  straightening  out  plates  (up 
to  8  feet  wide  by  ij  inches  thick)  consist  of  several 
rollers,  while  that  which  prepares  the  plates  to  cover 
masts  rolls  them  into  a  complete  cylinder  which  is 

317 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

removed  by  being  drawn  off  one  end  of  the  upper 
roller.  There  stands  an  hydraulic  keel-plate-bending 
machine,  which  can  curve  both  sides  of  a  keel-plate  at 
the  same  time.  And  any  of  these  various  machines 
can  be  fitted  with  hydraulic  cranes,  &c.,  to  handle  the 
plates. 

Smaller,  lighter  tools,  manipulated  by  separate 
workmen,  may  also  be  driven  by  hydraulic  power 
with  the  greatest  advantage. 

Hydraulic  riveting  machines  are  now  almost  uni- 
versally used  in  British  ship-yards.  These  perform 
their  work  of  burring  the  heads  of  rivets  by  the 
irresistible  power  of  water  pressure,  which  slowly 
moulds  the  free  end  of  the  rivet  as  soon  as  the  jaws 
of  the  machine  have  been  brought  in  position  so  as  to 
grip  the  rivet  longitudinally.  The  use  of  hydraulic 
riveters,  which  can  be  applied  to  the  major  part  of  a 
ship's  frame  and  plates,  effects  a  saving  in  cost  of 
30  to  40  per  cent.,  and  the  work  is  done  better  than 
by  hand. 

In  America  preference  is  given  to  the  pneumatic 
riveter;  a  small  tool,  which,  under  an  air  pressure 
of  100  to  150  lbs.  per  square  inch,  delivers  several 
hundred  blows  a  minute  on  the  tail  of  the  rivet,  with 
a  force  and  rapidity  which  soon  spreads  the  metal. 
These  tools,  being  light  enough  for  a  workman  to 
carry  easily  in  his  hands,  are  very  convenient  in  many 
ways,  but  at  present  have  not  found  much  favour  on 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  In  certain  of  our  ship- 
building yards,  however,  we  find  pneumatic  riveters, 

318 


Ocean  Leviathans 

caulkers,  and  chippers  coming  into  greater  use,  mainly 
on  account  of  their  portable  character,  which  enables 
them  to  be  applied  quickly  to  their  work.  In  some 
cases  a  pneumatic  holding-on  hammer  is  combined 
with  the  riveter,  though  as  a  rule  the  holder-on  is 
separate. 

Punching,  boring,  deck-planing,  &c.,  may  be  also 
carried  on  pneumatically,  some  large  drills  being  in 
use,  but  electrically-driven  tools  seem  preferred  for 
these  and  similar  operations. 

To  deal  with  the  enormous  expanse  of  the  modern 
Argo,  and  the  very  large  and  heavy  plates  now  used 
for  its  outer  covering,  correspondingly  gigantesque 
plant  is  being  devised.  Huge  revolving  derricks 
worked  by  electricity  lift  the  heavy  portions  and 
install  them  in  their  place.  At  the  Newport  News 
yard  in  America,  a  cantilever  crane,  each  arm  extend- 
ing 89  feet  from  the  centre  (and  able  to  deal  with 
weights  of  from  4  tons  to  12  tons  according  to 
position),  moves  on  a  trestle  735  feet  long.  Messrs. 
Harland  &  Wolff  use  a  travelling  gantry,  first  de- 
signed for  the  Oceanicy  which  strides  across  the  vessel 
under  construction,  and  runs  on  rails  laid  parallel  with 
its  bed  ;  this  is  provided  with  three  traversing-cranes, 
and  four  4-ton  swing-cranes  to  facilitate  operations. 
Many  of  the  shell  plates  in  the  Celtic  and  Cedric  weigh  3 
to  4  tons,  and  larger  pieces  of  the  ships — such  as  the 
stern  frame  —  weigh  over  50  tons.  The  famous 
Vulcan  Works,  Stettin,  hoist  their  big  fittings  into 
place  with  an  enormous  "  shear-legs "  crane,  whose 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

chain-tackle,  strong  enough  to  move  loo-ton  guns 
if  required,  can  readily  deal  with  such  items  as  pumps, 
shafts,  funnels,  boilers,  and  masts.  Some  constructors 
raise  a  colossal  framework  to  form  the  building  shed, 
upon  the  sides  and  under  the  roof  of  which  both 
fixed  and  movable  cranes  are  arranged  to  carry 
and  deposit  materials,  or  to  support  machines  and 
tools. 

All  such  shipbuilding  plant  is  very  costly  to  set  up, 
and  the  machines  are  expensive  to  keep  in  order. 
However,  the  economy  in  labour,  and  the  increased 
rate  of  output  rendered  possible  make  it  worth 
while  to  incur  the  expenditure.  For  though  the 
largest-sized  ships  are  found  to  require  a  greater 
proportionate  outlay  on  construction  than  smaller 
ones,  they  are  much  cheaper  to  run  ;  all  such  ex- 
penses as  loading,  coal  consumption,  and  harbour 
charges  falling  less  heavily  when  divided  over  a  large 
cargo.  So  the  tendency  of  the  epoch  is  to  increase 
the  size  of  vessels  year  by  year.  This  fact  is  being 
brought  home  even  to  the  most  conservative  dock 
owners,  and  the  movement  towards  widening  and 
deepening  harbour  and  dock  accommodation  is  nearly 
universal.  Both  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and 
in  New  York  the  entrances  are  being  dredged  for  a 
draught  of  40  feet,  and  those  European  docks  which, 
like  Southampton  and  Hamburg,  have  kept  abreast  of 
the  times,  are  attracting  the  most  flourishing  trade. 
It  has  been  calculated  that  within  the  half  century  our 
principal  liners  will  measure  1000  feet  in  length  by 

320 


Ocean  Leviathans 

loo  feet  in  breadth,  and  draw  over  30  feet  of 
water. 

The  White  Star  Company  and  the  North  German 
lines  have,  during  late  years,  become  rivals  in  running 
ships  of  unusual  speed  and  capacity.  Building  against 
each  other,  they  have  succeeded  in  producing  veritable 
floating  palaces.  There  is,  however,  a  fundamental 
difference  in  the  working  principles  to  which  each 
pins  its  faith. 

Every  half-knot  gained  in  speed  means  an  enor- 
mously higher  coal  consumption,  since  the  resistance 
offered  by  water  to  a  body  moving  through  it  in- 
creases more  rapidly  than  the  resultant  velocity — 
practically  the  resistance  varies  as  the  square  of  the 
velocity.  Hence,  to  double  the  speed  it  would  be 
necessary  to  quadruple  the  impelling  force,  and 
engines  of  eight  times  the  power  would  be  required — 
that  is,  the  motive  energy  must  be  increased  in  ratio 
with  the  cube  of  the  velocity.  For  example,  the  engine- 
power  producing  15  miles  per  hour  would  have  to 
be  twenty-seven  times  greater  than  for  5  miles  per 
hour. 

The  Cunard  "  fliers  "  Campania  and  Lucaniay  which 
till  recently  held  the  record  for  swift  Atlantic  passages, 
make  22  knots  with  28,000  horse-power ;  but  to  get 
two  additional  knots  per  hour  48,000  horse-power 
would  be  necessary,  and  the  addition  of  290  tons  of 
coal  to  the  present  460  tons  consumed  per  day. 
German  enterprise  is  bending  all  its  energies  to  solve 
the  problem  of  how  to  add  this  extra  speed  without 

321  X 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

swamping  profits  by  the  initial  cost  and  fuel  bill 
of  such  powerful  engines.  The  English-speaking 
company  is  inclined  to  spend  less  on  despatch, 
and  to  make  their  gains  off  large  freights  and  lower 
fares. 

In  1897  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse^  with  a  length 
of  680  feet,  and  a  gross  tonnage  of  20,880  tons,  was 
the  "biggest  thing  afloat,"  and  her  record  speed  of 
23  knots  wrested  from  England  the  *'  blue  riband  of 
the  sea."  But  the  Oceanic,  measuring  704  feet  from 
end  to  end,  and  of  30,000-tons  displacement  at  load- 
line,  was  even  then  upon  the  stocks  at  Belfast,  and 
her  maiden  voyage  was  watched  with  exceptional 
interest.  She  was  built  to  be  a  mail  and  passenger 
steamer  of  the  finest  type  and  largest  size,  and  soon 
proved  herself  to  combine  speed,  steadiness,  and 
comfort  with  her  immense  capacity. 

The  Hamburg  -  American  line  replied  with  the 
Deutschland,  launched  in  1900,  at  16,500  tons,  which 
made  the  record  passage  to  New  York  of  5  days, 
7  hours,  38  minutes,  doing  as  much  as  23*51  knots  an 
hour.  The  Kronprinz  Wilhelm^  of  the  North  German 
line,  runs  her  closely  with  23'2i  knots  per  hour  on 
occasion. 

Meanwhile  Messrs.  Harland  &  Wolff's  building 
yard  at  Belfast  was  exerting  itself  to  outdo  even  its 
former  triumph  in  size — the  Oceanic — by  producing 
her  giant  sister  the  Celtic,  and  subsequently  the  Cedric, 
In  emulation  of  these  the  Vulcan  Company  at  Stettin 
has  followed  up  its  first  Kaiser  Wilhelm  by  a  second  of 

322 


Ocean  Leviathans 

the  name  which  is  to  surpass  (so  we  are  assured) 
every  previous  marvel  of  marine  architecture. 

Largest  of  all  vessels  ever  built  is  the  new  twin- 
screw  steamer  Cedricy  with  gross  tonnage  of  21,000 
tons  (the  Celtic  being  the  first  to  exceed  20,000  tons), 
and  a  load-line  displacement  of  37,870  tons.  The 
Oceanic  is  luxurious  and  rapid,  her  speed  averaging 
21  knots  per  hour,  but  the  Celtic  and  Cedric  were 
designed  as  combination  ships,  adding  huge  cargo- 
carrying  capacity  to  comfortable  passenger  accommo- 
dation for  those  whose  desideratum  is  a  moderate 
charge.  Externally  they  are  very  striking  vessels,  but 
their  immense  size  is  so  masked  by  perfect  proportion 
and  graceful  lines  that  it  can  only  be  appreciated 
when  in  comparison  with  others. 

Standing  on  the  captain's  bridge  of  the  Cedricy  we 
gaze  dizzily  down  to  the  keel  100  feet  below  ^ — an 
elevation  comprising  no  fewer  than  nine  decks — and 
endeavour  to  realise  that  in  full  length  and  width 
the  great  structure  measures  700  feet  by  75  feet  (5 
feet  wider  than  the  Oceanic),  Then  the  eye  is  gradu- 
ally carried  upward  by  the  four  tall  masts,  and  turns 
almost  with  awe  upon  the  pair  of  monster  funnels, 
15  feet  9  inches  by  12  feet  in  diameter,  towering  120 
feet  above  the  top  of  their  fire-grates.  Eight  boilers 
supply  steam  for  working  the  Harland  &  Wolff 
quadruple-expansion  "engines  of  14,000  horse-power, 
which,  being  perfectly  balanced  and  driven  at  a 
medium  speed  of  17  knots,  not  only  consume  less 

^  This  only  possible  in  dry  dock. 


Romance  of  Modern   Engineering 

coal,  but  almost  do  away  with  the  vibration  which  has 
such  a  disagreeable  effect  in  very  fast  steamers. 

First-class  accommodation  is  all  amidships,  on  the 
upper-bridge  and  boat  decks,  the  sitting-rooms  form- 
ing an  imposing  suite  both  in  size  and  in  style  of 
decoration.  The  splendid  dining-saloon  on  the  upper 
deck,  superbly  illuminated  through  a  domed  skylight, 
its  panelled  walls  embellished  by  deep  mouldings  and 
alabaster  frieze,  its  ceiling  brilliant  in  white  and  gold, 
extends  the  whole  breadth  of  the  ship,  and  will  seat 
over  three  hundred  guests  at  once.  The  library — 
dedicated  chiefly  to  the  ladies — is  a  luxuriously  fur- 
nished apartment,  cosy  chairs  and  lounges,  writing- 
tables,  rich  pile  carpets,  carefully  screened  lights,  and 
a  perfect  system  of  ventilation,  providing  the  acme  of 
comfort.  A  little  way  removed  is  the  spacious 
smoking-room,  its  walls  more  soberly  and  appro- 
priately hung  with  embossed  leather,  and  its  plenish- 
ings all  that  the  heart  of  man  can  desire. 

There  are  single-berth  state-rooms  (a  rare  con- 
venience), ordinary  state-rooms  for  two  or  more 
persons,  and  suites  consisting  of  bed-,  sitting-,  and 
bath-rooms  for  families  or  those  who  desire  privacy. 
Small  adjustable  tables,  and  square  windows  with 
screw  ventilators  are  special  features  in  the  bridge- 
deck  chambers. 

The  second  class  has  corresponding  accommoda- 
tion aft,  on  the  upper  and  bridge  decks,  almost 
equally  handsome  and  convenient  in  its  appoint- 
ments, with  bed-rooms,  bath-rooms,  &c.,  all  of  the 

324 


Ocean  Leviathans 

latest  type.  While  the  third  class  passengers  are 
domiciled  upon  the  upper,  middle,  and  lower  decks, 
either  in  separate  cabins  or  in  open  berths  little  in- 
ferior to  what  was  the  highest-priced  accommodation 
a  few  years  ago.  For  these  also  are  prepared  a  series 
of  comfortable  dining,  sitting,  and  smoking  rooms, 
and  the  ventilation  (by  a  system  of  electric  and  steam 
fans),  bathing  facilities,  electric  lighting,  and  so  on, 
are — as  elsewhere — ordered  upon  the  most  approved 
principles. 

Each  class  of  passengers,  and  the  ship's  own  com- 
pany has  its  entirely  separate  equipment  of  cuisine ; 
and  there  are  well-found  quarters  for  the  crew,  who 
number  some  350.  Of  these  about  100  men  are 
employed  in  the  engine  department  below  decks, 
and  nearly  twice  as  many  to  serve  the  visitors  in 
various  capacities,  the  rest  being  deck-hands. 

After  a  stroll  along  the  promenades,  and  a  rest 
beneath  the  snowy  awnings  which  make  cool  retreats 
from  the  mid-day  sun,  we  pass  from  one  storey  to 
another  by  means  of  broad  stairways  and  along  corri- 
dors where  the  feet  tread  noiselessly  and  securely 
upon  patent  rubber  flooring,  in  artistic  designs,  and 
descend  to  what  may  be  termed  the  "business  pre- 
mises" of  this  great  marine  hostelry.  Again  we  en- 
counter fresh  marvels  at  every  step,  till  there  is  no 
more  spirit  left  in  us  to  put  another  question,  and 
no  words  can  hope  to  convey  the  impression  left 
on  our  mind  of  magnitude,  of  mechanical  force,  of 
almost  limitless  foresight  and  efficiency.     How  have 

325 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

the  dry  bones  been  clad,  the  echoing  compartments 
been  filled,  since  we  watched  the  skeleton  of  the 
mighty  fabric  rise  with  clang  of  metal  upon  metal  I 
What  thousands  of  tons  of  fittings,  and  furnishings, 
and  every  manner  of  provision,  have  been  hoisted 
into  her  and  bestowed  among  her  numerous  decks 
before  this  Queen  of  the  Seas  took  her  first  trip  west- 
wards as  one  of  the  links  of  empire  ! 

Amidships,  its  distribution  carefully  calculated  to 
preserve  balance  and  minimise  strain  upon  the  hull, 
the  machinery  which  provides  motive-power  for  this 
vast  dead  weight  is  situated.  Here  are  the  great 
steam-engines  with  all  their  appurtenances,  to  the 
untrained  eye  a  bewildering  confusion  of  wheels  and 
cylinders,  cranks  and  rods ;  the  boilers  and  their 
supply  tanks ;  the  exhaust-pipes  and  ventilators  ;  the 
succession  of  coal-bunkers,  arranged  to  form  a  pro- 
tection round  the  engines  which  they  feed.  To  ex- 
plore the  length  of  the  massive  driving-shafts  which 
convey  the  engine's  energy  from  the  centre  of  the 
ship  to  the  propellers  at  the  stern  would  be  a  journey 
in  itself. 

Incidentally  we  are  introduced  to  some  of  the 
auxiliary  engines  for  steering,  pumping,  and  ventila- 
tion ;  to  the  electric  plant ;  to  the  system  of  telephonic 
communication,  and  the  wireless  telegraphy  office. 
And  forming  the  very  basement  of  the  whole  build- 
ing, between  the  two  skins  of  the  hull,  lie — rather 
to  be  guessed  at  than  seen — the  huge  water  tanks; 
tanks  to  hold  hundreds  of  tons  of  fresh  water,  tanks 

326 


Ocean  Leviathans 

to  ""supply  the  boilers,  and  the  water-ballast  which 
trims  the  ship  and  can  be  periodically  increased  to 
compensate  consumption  of  coal  and  provisions 
during  the  voyage. 

Glance  in  passing  into  the  extensive  holds  crowded 
with  cargo,  which  is  let  down  from  above  by  cranes 
and  winches  attached  to  the  decks.  That  massive 
door  guards  the  strong  room  wherein  all  valuables 
are  deposited  beneath  the  captain's  care.  And  this 
is  the  entrance  to  the  freezing  chamber  in  which 
meat  and  other  necessaries  are  kept  fresh  to  the 
very  end  of  the  journey.  There  are  furlongs  of 
hose,  with  forcing-engines  and  all  other  appliances, 
to  fight  the  great  enemy  of  sea-going  craft.  The 
sturdy  crew  seem  as  well  trained  in  their  fire-drill 
as  in  manning  the  flotilla  of  boats  that  swing  from 
the  davits  above,  prepared  for  all  emergencies. 

Admire  now  the  airy  kitchens,  equipped  with  every 
latest  invention  to  save  the  cooks  labour,  and  their 
spacious  sculleries  and  pantries ;  the  laundries,  store- 
rooms, cupboards,  wine-bins^  and  all  the  other  do- 
mestic paraphernalia  of  a  first-class  hotel.  But  what 
hotel  had  ever  to  provide  for  so  many  resident  guests  ? 
Where  is  the  manager  who  could  serenely  contem- 
plate the  cutting  off  of  his  establishment  from  all 
outside  support  for  several  consecutive  days  ?  No 
fishmonger,  no  milkman,  no  newspaper-boys  ;  neither 
restaurant,  picture-gallery,  nor  theatre  for  the  ennuyes 
to  resort  to  !  And  upon  these  big  liners  we  find  not 
merely  such  an  assembly  as  might  fill  the  most  capa- 

327 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

cious  hotel,  but  a  population  equal  to  that  of  many 
a  country  town.  Three  hundred  and  sixty-five  first- 
class  passengers,  i6o  second-class,  and  2352  steer- 
age, with  the  vessel's  own  quorum,  bring  up  the 
temporary  inmates  of  the  Cedric  to  nearly  3300 
souls. 

Let  them  enter  the  vessel  two  by  two — the  time- 
honoured  fashion  in  which  our  youthful  fingers  filed 
the  animals  towards  the  Ark — they  would  make  a 
procession  about  2  miles  long.  Or  domicile  them 
in  houses  4  or  5  storeys  high,  allowing  10  per- 
sons to  a  house,  and  2  feet  of  frontage  to  a 
person,  they  would  fill  both  sides  of  a  street  5 
furlongs  (f-mile)  in  length.  And  all  these  men, 
women,  and  children,  must  be  housed  and  fed, 
waited  upon,  and  amused,  according  to  their  varying 
requirements,  for  the  space  of  a  week.  Calculate 
the  amount  of  household  provision — not  simply  food 
of  all  kinds,  liquid  and  solid,  but  china,  plate,  hnen, 
napery — the  daily  toll  of  500  serviettes  alone  ! 

All  is  there,  however,  awaiting  them  before  they 
set  foot  on  board,  all  the  conveniences  of  every-day 
life  in  cities  demanded  by  the  most  exigent  traveller. 
The  ever-recurring  dainty  meals,  served  by  deft-handed 
waiters  ;  white  cloths  and  glittering  glass  and  silver ; 
palms  and  ferns  and  fresh  flowers  to  rest  the  eye. 
There  is  space  for  games  to  exercise  the  athletic. 
Music  and  dancing  speed  the  evening  hours.  While 
chatting  lazily  in  the  cigar-store  or  refreshment  bar 
we  might  forget  that  we  are   being   carried   swiftly 

328 


Ocean  Leviathans 

across  the  ocean,  save  for  the  breeze  which  soothes 
and  refreshes  our  business-jaded  faculties.  And  this 
upon  a  steamer  designed  chiefly  for  a  freight  carrier  I 

In  the  Deutschland  and  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II,  we 
recognise  the  opposite  type  of  vessel, — that  built  only 
for  conveying  mails  and  passengers  at  highest  speed. 
The  conclusion  apparently  arrived  at  by  English  and 
American  companies,  that  "excessive  speed  which 
means  enormous  first  cost  and  extravagant  running 
expenses  does  not  pay,"  is  here  controverted ;  for 
the  large  subsidies  provided  by  Government  enable 
the  German  "  express  "  liners  to  pay  their  way  every 
trip,  and,  when  full,  to  make  a  large  profit.  The  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  II,  represents  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  luxury 
which  twentieth  century  civilisation  has  produced, 
the  rush  for  wealth  which  almost  precludes  enjoyment 
in  its  possession.  The  first  requisite  is  hurry — to 
clench  a  bargain,  to  start  a  new  undertaking.  So 
the  main  engines  are  the  most  powerful  ever  designed, 
composing  a  structure  92  feet  long,  and  43  feet  4  inches 
in  height ;  the  weight  of  the  crank  shafts  alone  being 
,252,000  lbs.  A  plant  of  nineteen  boilers  provides 
steam  for  4  quadruple-expansion  engines,  which  pro- 
duce about  40,000  i.h.p.,  and  are  intended  to  drive 
her  through  the  water  at  a  rate  approaching  24 
knots.  The  condensers,  through  which  the  steam 
passes  after  leaving  the  last  cylinder,  are  a  mass  of 
narrow  tubes  aggregating  40  miles  if  laid  end  to  end. 
The  complete  driving-shaft  is  230  feet  long,  and  the 
four-bladed  bronze  propellers— they  work  at  80  revolu- 

329 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

tions  per  minute — are  22  feet,  10  inches  in  diameter. 
The  boiler-rooms  and  coal-bunkers  (the  latter  con- 
taining 5700  tons)  have  a  total  length  of  295  feet, 
and  the  coal  is  conveyed  to  the  furnaces  along  a 
railviray  track  measuring  double  that  length.  Fresh 
air  is  conducted  to  the  boiler-rooms  through  large 
cowls  69  feet  long,  and  the  combustion  gases  dis- 
charge themselves  by  4  funnels  as  in  other  ships  of 
the  same  line.^ 

The  cast-steel  stern-post  is  of  the  enormous  weight 
of  253,000  lbs.,  and  the  rudder  has  an  elaborate  steel 
protection  in  case  of  war.  Into  this  cigar-shaped 
extension  a  special  steering  engine  is  built,  supple- 
mented by  one  upon  the  poop-deck,  and  by  a  hand- 
moved  tiller  should  the  machinery  fail. 

The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  11.  is  about  the  same  length 
as  the  Cedric;  but  her  beam  is  3  feet  narrower,  and 
her  tonnage  considerably  less,  as  she  is  not  a  cargo 
steamer.  Every  modern  improvement  to  ensure 
safety  amid  the  perils  of  the  seas  has  been  elaborated  : 
such  as  exceptional  thickness  of  keel-plating;  18 
water-tight  bulkheads ;  an  extensive  system  of  water 
and  steam  pipes,  and  electric  alarm-bells  to  guard 
against  fire ;  a  fleet  of  26  boats  ;  and  27  powerful 
steam  pumps,  which  can  between  them  discharge 
9360  tons  of  water  per  hour. 

Besides  the  ship's  complement  of  600  men,  1888 
passengers  have  to  be  catered  for — 773  first-class, 
343  second-class,  and  770  third-class.     There  are  4 

^  237  men  devote  their  services  entirely  to  this  department. 


Ocean  Leviathans 

separate  kitchens,  of  which  the  one  for  the  first-class 
alone  is  56  feet  long  and  30  feet  wide,  its  pantry 
measures  70  feet  by  18  feet,  and  the  sculleries  36  feet 
by  17  feet ;  all  other  appointments  in  proportion. 
The  storerooms  are  of  vast  dimensions,  providing  a 
space  of  26,000  cubic  feet,  with  refrigerators  to  keep 
the  contents  cool,  and  a  large  supply  of  ice  for  use. 

Space  fails  us  to  enumerate  the  minute  particulars 
of  accommodation  made  for  travellers'  needs  or 
idiosyncrasies.  Two  doctors,  with  a  drug  store  at 
their  disposal,  are  ready  to  attend  upon  the  sick.  A 
dark-room  awaits  the  enthusiastic  amateur  photo- 
grapher. The  two  Wiener  Caf^s  combine  the  open- 
air  enjoyments  of  the  Fatherland  with  a  far-reaching 
prospect  of  the  glorious  sea.  A  barber's  shop  lessens 
the  trials  of  the  toilet.  And  the  electric  system  installed 
throughout  the  ship  is  carried  into  such  practical 
detail  that  we  may  equally  light  our  cigars  or  curl 
our  hair  by  electricity  ! 

The  children  have  a  saloon  to  themselves,  prettily 
decorated  in  red  and  white,  and  its  walls  adorned 
with  paintings  representing  popular  fairy  tales.  As 
for  the  architecture  of  the  suites  of  assembly  rooms, 
the  dining- saloon,  drawing-room,  smoking-rooms, 
vestibules  and  corridors,  and  the  great  light -well, 
whose  balconies  are  supported  on  graceful  colon- 
nades, does  it  not  present  the  very  semblance  of  a 
fairy-tale  vivified  in  the  mere  description  ?  The 
schemes  of  aesthetic  colouring,  varied  by  pictures  and 
statuettes  by  eminent  artists;  the  stained  glass  and 

331 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

rich  brass  ornamentations  ;  the  lacquer-work  in  simili- 
tude of  birds  and  flowers ;  the  silken  curtains ;  the 
exquisite  mingling  of  shades  in  carpets  and  draperies, 
all  read  like  a  scene  from  the  White  Cat's  palace  of 
delights. 

But  we  are  brought  back  by  a  sudden  shock  to 
the  stern  realities  of  life.  Saluting  Ludwig  Noster's 
fine  portrait  of  the  sovereign  whose  name  the  sump- 
tuous vessel  bears,  we  cross  the  deck  reluctantly  to 
leave  her.  And  there  confront  us  the  metal  beds 
that  enable  the  peaceful  express  steamer  to  develop 
into  a  vessel  of  destruction  within  a  fortnight  of  the 
first  rumour  of  coming  war. 


332 


CHAPTER    XVII 

FLOATING  DOCKS 

However  accurately  planned  and  carefully  finished 
a  vessel  may  be,  the  time  comes  when  it  has  to  go 
on  to  the  "sick  list."  Its  ailment  may  only  amount 
to  the  need  of  a  fresh  coating  or  two  of  paint,  or 
the  accumulation  of  barnacles  and  marine  weeds  on 
its  bottom  may  have  perceptibly  diminished  its  speed. 
Or  perhaps  a  storm  has  handled  it  roughly,  and  a 
plate  has  started  far  below  the  water-line ;  or  it  has 
run  foul  of  a  rock,  and  crushed  in  a  part  of  its  steel 
walls;  and  last,  but  not  least,  shot  and  shell  may 
have  worked  their  wicked  will  upon  it. 

The  repair  of  a  small  boat  is  a  simple  matter. 
Just  beach  it  and  turn  it  over.  A  small  ship  may  be 
careened,  or  heeled  over  till  a  portion  is  exposed  to 
the  workman.  But  when  huge  vessels  —  liners  or 
ironclads — weighing  thousands  of  tons  have  to  be 
handled,  the  question  assumes  an  altogether  more 
serious  aspect. 

In  most  of  the  large  ports  and  dockyards  of  the 
world  is  to  be  found  a  contrivance  known  as  a  dry- 
dock,  an  excavation  walled  and  floored  with  concrete 
and  masonry,  and  furnished  at  one  end  with  stout 
gates  or  caissons.     The  vessel   in  for  repairs  is  ad- 

333 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

mitted  into  the  dock,  the  entrance  is  closed,  and  the 
great  pumps  on  the  dock  edge  set  to  work  to  drain 
off  the  water.  As  it  recedes,  the  ship  settles  slowly 
down  on  to  the  keel-blocks  over  which  she  has  been 
centred,  and  shores  are  placed  on  either  side  to  pre- 
vent her  heeling  over.  At  last  the  dock  is  dry,  and 
the  carpenters  and  other  mechanics  can  get  to  work 
with  scrapers,  riveters,  and  the  special  tools  requisite 
for  the  job  in  hand. 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  dimensions  and  tonnage 
of  ships  has  necessitated  a  corresponding  augmenta- 
tion of  the  measurements  of  dry-docks.  The  Cedricy 
Oceanic^  and  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II.  could  no  more  get 
into  the  docks  of  fifty  years  ago  than  a  man  could 
squeeze  himself  into  the  garments  of  his  five-year- 
old  son.  Dry-docks  750  feet  in  length  are  now  quite 
common,  and  in  several  cases  this  longitude  is  con- 
siderably exceeded.  At  Liverpool  we  find  a  graving 
{i,e,  dry)  dock  1000  feet  long,  at  Glasgow  one  of  880 
feet,  at  Tilbury  one  of  873  feet,  at  Belfast  one  of  850 
feet.  In  order  to  accommodate  the  largest  vessels,  the 
depth  of  water  over  the  sill  of  the  entrance  must  be 
somewhat  more  than  the  heaviest  draught  of  these 
vessels  ;  and  to  receive  them  at  all  times  and  seasons, 
the  level  must  be  calculated  for  spring  tides,  when  the 
tides  are  at  their  maximum  and  minimum  heights. 

The  construction  of  a  dry-dock  800  feet  long,  100 
feet  broad,  and  50-60  feet  deep  is  a  great  undertaking; 
for  these  dimensions  by  no  means  fully  represent  the 
amount  of  mere  excavation.     If  you  dig  a  deep  hole 

334 


Floating  Docks 


in  your  back  garden  in  normally  wet  weather  you 
will  probably  find,  on  reaching  a  depth  of  a  few  feet, 
that  water  begins  to  ooze  through.  If,  therefore,  you 
require  a  water-tight  pit  of  given  dimensions,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  clear  out  an  extra  foot  or  so  in  all 
directions  to  allow  for  a  cement  or  brick  lining  on 
five  faces.  Should  your  object  be  a  pit  at  once  very 
deep  and  dry,  your  difficulties  will  be  increased  by 
the  external  pressure  of  the  water,  which  may  be 
roughly  calculated  at  i  pound  for  every  2  feet 
of  depth  below  the  top  level  of  the  water-bearing 
stratum.  The  thickSiess  of  your  walls  must  be  in- 
creased, and  their  joints  sealed  exactly,  or  you  may 
find  that  your  labour  has  been  in  vain. 

The  dry-dock  engineer  has  to  contend  with  the 
same  difficulties  in  an  aggravated  form.  His  walls 
are  lofty^  his  floors  very  spacious.  Unless  the  greatest 
care  is  taken,  the  walls  will  be  bulged  in  by  the  earth 
pressure,  and  both  walls  and  floor  penetrated  by  the 
water  that  must  be  present  in  ground  near  the  sea. 
And,  inasmuch  as  the  dock  when  dry  is  practically 
an  emptied  tank,  its  total  weight  or  adhesion  to  the 
ground  beneath  must  be  sufficient  to  secure  it  against 
a  tendency  to  float.  The  masonry  is  therefore  very 
massive,  and  the  bottom  made  in  the  form  of  an 
inverted  arch  to  resist  upward  pressure  and  to  enable 
the  walls  to  stand  the  thrust  inwards  from  the  backing. 
So  severe  are  these  thrusts  that  the  Aberdeen  Dock — 
to  take  an  instance — built  in  1883-85  of  concrete  with 
granite  facings,  had    been  so  much  disturbed  and 

335 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

cracked  by  1896,  that  the  owners  had  to  decide  be- 
tween spending  ;^68,ooo  on  its  repair,  and  rebuilding 
the  dock  throughout.  On  the  Tyne,  also,  the  bottom 
of  a  newly  completed  dock  went  wrong,  and  cost  an 
additional  ;^30,ooo  before  it  could  handle  a  ship. 

These  are,  however,  exceptional  cases,  and  many 
docks  exist  to-day  which  have  done  their  duty  satis- 
factorily for  years,  and  should  last  for  many  to  come, 
since  well-laid  ashlar  work  in  an  ordinary  climate 
will  stand  practically  for  ever.  The  construction  of 
graving-docks  is  nevertheless  a  difficult  and  uncertain 
matter  in  some  localities,  especially  in  those  where 
the  ground  is  of  a  sandy  or  porous  nature.  Under 
such  conditions  the  walls  and  floor  must  be  borne 
up  on  long  piles  reaching  down  to  a  more  solid 
substratum.  In  fact,  it  is  sometimes  impossible  to 
build  a  graving-dock  except  at  a  prohibitive  cost, 
and,  if  the  necessity  for  a  means  of  repairing  vessels 
in  a  certain  locality  is  unavoidable,  recourse  must 
be  had  to  some  other  means  for  raising  the  huge 
floating  forts  and  ocean  leviathans  out  of  the  water. 

In  1795  one  C.  Watson  took  out  a  patent  for  a 
floating  dock,  a  wooden  construction  of  barge-shaped 
lines,  the  ends  of  which  could  be  closed  by  doors. 
A  ship  having  been  floated  in,  the  doors  were  closed 
and  the  water  pumped  out,  causing  dock  and  vessel 
to  rise  above  the  water-line.  A  print  is  extant  of 
such  a  dock  lifting  the  brig  Mercury  at  Rotherhithe 
about  1800. 

Watson's  contrivance  was  very  primitive,  and  cap- 
336 


-       o 


CQ      S 


Floating  Docks 


able  of  lifting  only  of  what  we  should  consider  very 
small  craft.  But  since  his  time  immense  improve- 
ments have  been  made,  mainly  owing  to  the  substitu- 
tion of  metal  for  wood.  In  1859  Rennie  built  a  large 
iron  floating-dock  for  use  at  Cartagena,  which  is  still 
doing  useful  work.  The  floating-docks  of  to-day  are 
very  much  more  imposing  structures  than  Rennie's, 
and  are  of  steel,  like  the  ships  they  are  destined  to 
lift. 

The  floating-dock  is  in  idea  a  series  of  pontoons 
rigidly  attached  to  one  another  and  of  great  dis- 
placement. When  full  the  pontoons  naturally  sink, 
and  as  they  are  emptied  their  natural  buoyancy  serves 
not  only  to  raise  them  to  the  surface  again,  but 
also  to  lift  burdens  of  a  weight  equal  to  the  difference 
between  their  own  weight  and  their  displacement. 

In  section  it  either  resembles  the  graving-docks,  i.e. 
is  of  a  U  shape,  or  the  letter  L.  The  latter  class  is 
known  as  an  *' off-shore"  dock,  since  the  upright 
member  must  be  attached  by  parallel  booms  to  the 
shore  or  some  rigid  hold  in  order  that  it  may  not 
heel  over  when  carrying  a  load  on  its  horizontal 
pontoon.  The  U-dock  is  independent,  and  may  be 
towed  from  place  to  place  like  an  ordinary  vessel. 

Floating-docks  have  open  ends,  and  are  therefore 
able  to  handle  vessels  longer  than  themselves.  The  L 
docks,  being  open  on  one  side  also,  can  accommodate 
ships  of  greater  beam  than  their  pontoons.  Modern 
vessels  are  very  stiff,  being  practically  a  powerful  form 
of  girder.    Their  heaviest  portion  is  in  the  centre,  and 

337  Y 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

although  it  would  put  an  undue  strain  on  a  liner  to 
lift  her  by  bow  and  stern,  leaving  her  unsupported 
amidships,  to  apply  the  pressure  to  the  central  half  of 
her  keel  only  would  not  be  attended  with  much  risk. 
So  we  read  that  the  Nicolaieff  Dock,  174  feet  long 
over  blocks,  lifted  the  Rossia^  334  feet  long;  and 
the  Barrow  Dock,  240  feet  long,  was  able  to  partly 
raise  the  Empress  of  China  of  nearly  double  its 
length.  The  same  dock,  though  only  54  feet  in  beam, 
has  lifted  paddle  steamers  68  feet  broad. 

As  regards  latitude  in  dimensions  the  floating 
structure  has  a  decided  advantage  over  the  graving- 
dock.  Since  the  latter  must  have  closed  ends  it  is 
obvious  that  the  length  of  the  vessels  it  can  accommo- 
date is  strictly  limited.  The  same  is  true  of  their 
breadth  and  draught.  So  that,  given  two  vessels  of 
equal  tonnage  but  different  lines,  the  one  might  be 
able  to  get  into  dock,  and  the  other  be  compelled  to  go 
elsewhere  ;  whereas  the  floating-dock  would  probably 
be  able  to  handle  both  with  equal  ease,  or  if  its 
buoyancy  were  not  sufficient  to  lift  them  clear  of  the 
water,  it  could  raise  them  to  a  considerable  elevation. 

Many  graving-docks  are  for  reasons  of  economy  so 
built  that  vessels  can  enter  them  only  at  high  tide : 
and,  as  a  consequence,  leave  them  only  under  the  same 
conditions.  The  advantage  of  this  is,  that  during  low 
water  the  level  outside  the  dock  is  reduced,  and  with 
it  the  hydrostatic  pressure.  There  is  less  strain  on 
the  dock  walls,  and  less  leakage.  In  almost  tideless 
waters,  such  as  those  of  the  Baltic  and  Mediterranean, 

338 


Floating  Docks 


where  the  level  is  practically  constant,  the  deep  docks 
must  always  be  subject  to  heavy  pressures ;  and  on 
the  other  hand,  in  localities  where  the  level  fluctuates 
very  greatly,  as  in  the  St.  Lawrence,  a  dock  usable 
all  the  year  round  would  have  to  be  of  enormous 
depth.  We  therefore  find  the  floating-dock  largely 
used  in  preference  to  the  graving  where  a  constant  or 
very  variable  level  prevails.  To  render  it  useful  at 
low  water  even  in  shallow  roadsteads  dredging  is 
indeed  necessary,  but  dredging  is  inexpensive  in  com- 
parison with  excavation  and  masonry  work  on  dry- 
land. A  sudden  rise  of  level  makes  no  difference 
to  its  usefulness. 

A  further  advantage  of  the  floating-dock  will  easily 
be  recognised  by  any  one  who  has  passed  through  a 
river  lock.  That  lock  must  be  completely  emptied  or 
completely  filled  whether  the  passing  craft  be  a  row- 
boat  or  a  steamer.  The  smaller  the  craft  the  greater 
will  be  the  amount  of  water  moved.  Now,  the  pump- 
ing dry  of  graving-docks  is  a  costly  operation,  and 
would  bear  heavily  on  the  owners  of  a  small  ship  in 
inverse  proportion  to  the  size  of  their  vessel.  A  float- 
ing-dock, on  the  other  hand,  need  be  emptied  only 
until  the  deck  of  its  pontoons  is  at  such  a  depth  that 
the  vessel's  keel  will  clear  it  as  it  floats  in ;  and  the 
cost  becomes  much  more  directly  proportional  to  the 
displacement. 

The  two  finest  examples  of  floating-docks  are  those 
at  Bermuda  and  Algiers,  near  New  Orleans,  built 
respectively  for  the  British  and  United  States  Govern- 

339 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

ments.  Messrs.  Standfield  &  Clark,  of  Westminster, 
were  responsible  for  the  designs  of  these  mammoth 
structures. 

In  1869  a  dock  was  taken  from  England  to  Bermuda, 
and  stationed  there  for  strategical  purposes.  It  is  381 
feet  long  and  84  feet  between  the  side  walls,  and  will 
lift  a  ship  of  10,000  tons — heavier  than  the  line-of- 
battle  ship  of  the  date  of  its  construction.  But  so 
rapidly  have  the  weights  and  dimensions  of  large 
vessels  increased,  that  our  warships  are  now  500  feet 
in  length  and  of  15,000  tons  displacement.  The  Old 
Bermuda  Dock  has  therefore  become  obsolete,  and 
the  Admiralty  was  obliged  to  replace  it  by  a  structure 
more  suited  to  modern  requirements.  Borings  were 
made  at  many  points  on  the  island  with  the  intention 
of  deciding  a  position  for  a  graving-dock,  but  the 
geological  formation  proved  to  be  such  as  would 
render  the  construction  of  a  graving-dock  a  very 
expensive  matter.  The  authorities  therefore  ordered 
a  floating-dock  of  unequalled  dimensions,  to  cost 
/25o,ooo,  inclusive  of  its  transportation  to  Bermuda. 

The  new  dock  was  built  by  Messrs.  C.  S.  Swan  & 
Hunter,  of  Wallsend-on-Tyne.  It  is  545  feet  long, 
and  has  a  clear  width  between  the  top  of  the  walls  of 
100  feet.  The  walls  themselves  are  53J  feet  high  and 
435  feet  long,  and  form  girders  of  enormous  strength. 
Three  pontoons,  secured  to  the  lower  portions  of  the 
walls  by  fish-plate  joints,  lugs,  and  taper-pins,  form 
the  bottom  or  deck  of  the  dock.  The  middle  pontoon 
is  a  rectangle  96  by  300  feet ;  the  end  pontoons^  each 

340 


Floating  Docks 


120  feet  long,  taper  for  49  feet  towards  their  outer 
extremities  to  facilitate  towing. 

The  dock,  with  all  its  machinery,  weighs  6500  tons, 
and  has  a  lifting  power  up  to  deck  level  of  15,500  tons, 
though  by  using  the  "  pound  "  formed  by  the  bulwark 
surrounding  the  pontoon  decks  additional  lifting 
power  up  to  17,500  tons  can  be  gained. 

When  called  upon  to  perform  its  maximum  lift  the 
dock  is  sunk  until  the  summit  of  its  walls  is  but  2  feet 
6  inches  above  sea-level.  Water  is  admitted  into  the 
three  pontoons  and  the  two  side  walls,  and  from  them 
removed  by  eight  16-inch  centrifugal  pumps  at  a  rate 
sufficient  to  lift  an  ironclad  of  15,000  tons  in  three  and 
a  half  hours.  In  order  that  the  dock  may  not  tilt  as 
it  rises,  the  whole  is  divided  into  fifty-six  divisions,  each 
of  which  is  separately  connected  with  the  pumps.  By 
turning  off  cocks,  water  can  be  left  in  any  desired 
divisions,  and  the  dock  forced  to  incline  in  any  direc- 
tion for  purposes  of  cleaning  and  repairs. 

It  is  especially  important  that  a  structure  of  this 
kind  should  be  self-docking,  that  is,  able  to  lift  any 
part  of  itself  clear  of  the  water.  To  expose  the  bottom 
of  one  side  the  dock  is  first  lowered  to  a  depth  of  20 
to  21  feet,  the  water  inside  the  wall  compartments 
being  brought  to  the  same  level  as  that  of  the  water 
outside.  The  dock  is  then  raised  by  emptying  the 
pontoons,  and  when  these  are  exhausted  the  water  is 
released  from  the  side  to  be  exposed,  until  the  outer 
corner  is  2  feet  or  more  clear. 

The  pontoons  are  lifted  in  turn  by  withdrawing  the 
341 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

pins  of  one  and  allowing  it  to  float  while  the  rest  of 
the  dock  sinks.  The  pontoon  is  then  made  fast  to  the 
walls  at  its  floating  level,  and  the  dock  emptied,  so 
exposing  the  whole  of  the  bottom  of  the  raised  pon- 
toon. The  two  end  sections  can  be  treated  simul- 
taneously, and  floated  if  required  on  to  the  central 
portion,  but  the  latter  must  be  moved  only  when  the 
other  pontoons  are  in  position. 

Electric  lights  and  hauling  machinery  are  dis- 
tributed over  the  dock.  A  crane  capable  of  lifting 
5  tons  runs  along  each  wall  from  end  to  end. 

The  Bermuda  Dock  was  launched  at  Wallsend  in 
February  1902,  the  largest  floating  thing  that  ever 
took  the  water  since  the  time  of  Noah.  It  was  then 
towed  round  to  the  Medway  for  a  trial  with  a  battle- 
ship before  being  despatched  on  its  4000-mile  voyage 
to  Bermuda,  and  moored  in  the  deep  part  of  Sea- 
Reach  opposite  Port  Victoria.  The  Admiralty  selected 
the  Sanspareil  as  the  test  ship  on  account  of  her 
shape,  and  the  fact  that  the  peculiar  distribution  of 
her  weight  makes  her  a  somewhat  difiicult  vessel  to 
handle.  "The  battleship  was  moored  just  above 
Sheerness,  and  about  the  time  of  high-water,  about 
11.30  A.M.,  she  was  taken  in  charge  by  three  dock- 
yard tugs,  and  brought  up  to  the  entrance  of  the 
floating  dock.  Steel-wire  hawsers  were  made  fast 
to  the  bow,  and  these  being  secured  to  the  winches 
on  the  dock  the  hauling-in  commenced.  There  was 
a  strong  breeze  blowing  down  the  reach  at  the  time, 
and  on  the  flood  this  had  raised  waves  of  a   con- 

342 


Floating  Docks 


siderable  size  for  enclosed  water,  the  tide  running 
in  this  part  of  the  Medway  with  considerable  force. 
With  the  turn  of  the  ebb,  wind  and  tide  being  to- 
gether, the  water  was  smoother,  but  still  there  was 
considerable  motion.  This,  naturally,  did  not  affect 
the  dock  in  the  slightest  degree,  as  the  whole  of  the 
pontoon  was  28  feet  below  the  water-line,  and  only 
the  tops  of  the  walls  were  above  the  surface.  The 
heavy  battleship  of  over  10,000  tons  displacement — 
she  was  drawing  only  27  feet — had  to  be  hauled  in 
against  the  tide,  which  was  now  running  somewhat 
over  3  knots.  Naturally,  care  had  to  be  taken 
to  keep  her  keel  fairly  parallel  with  the  sides  of  the 
dock,  for,  had  she  got  across,  her  spur  would  speedily 
have  made  a  rent  in  the  walls  of  the  dock.  With 
the  powerful  hauling  appliances,  however,  there  was 
no  fear  of  this,  and  the  vessel  was  under  complete 
control  with  the  wire  hawsers  on  each  side.  The  ship 
was  centred  on  the  keel  blocks,  and  the  upper  rows 
ot  shores  were  j&xed  in  position  in  something  under 
two  hours,  and  the  work  of  pumping  out  the  dock 
was  commenced  at  a  few  minutes  past  two  o'clock. 
Pumping  was  continued  for  fifty  minutes,  by  the  end 
of  which  time  the  dock  and  ship  had  been  raised 
13  feet,  and  it  was  then  necessary  to  put  in  another 
line  of  shores.  This  operation  occupied  a  con- 
siderable time,  and  it  was  late  in  the  evening  before 
the  work  was  concluded,  and  the  ship  raised  out  of 
the  water."  ^ 

>  Engineering,  June  13,  1902. 

343 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

The  trial  completed,  the  dock  was  towed  from 
Sheerness  to  Bermuda  by  two  tugs,  the  Zwarte  Zee 
and  Oceaan  of  Rotterdam.  The  only  place  at  which 
it  was  necessary  to  call  was  the  Azores,  where  the 
tugs  replenished  their  bunkers.  The  time  occupied 
was  fifty-two  days,  including  the  stoppage  of  three  or 
four  days  at  the  Azores ;  but  the  progress  was  sure 
though  slow,  and  the  dock  arrived  in  perfect  safety 
at  its  destination. 

The  possible  importance  of  this  dock  in  a  naval 
war  in  western  waters  can  be  judged  from  the  fact, 
that  there  is  no  point  within  looo  miles  of  Bermuda 
to  which  a  crippled  battleship  could  make  for  re- 
pairs. For  some  time  past  the  Bermudan  authorities 
have  been  obliged  to  send  on  large  vessels  to  Halifax 
in  Nova  Scotia,  a  voyage  which  could  scarcely  be 
faced  by  a  leaky  craft.  If  strategy  demanded,  the 
dock  might  be  taken  in  tow,  and  removed  to  a  more 
favourable  position  nearer  the  probable  theatre  of 
war. 

The  second  largest,  but  the  most  powerful,  of  float- 
ing-docks is  to  be  found  at  the  naval  base  of  Algiers, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  dock  is  525  feet  long, 
and  of  the  same  width  as  the  Bermudan. 

Its  lifting  power  up  to  pontoon  deck  level  is  no 
less  than  18,000  tons,  and  this  may  be  increased  to 
20,000  tons  by  utilising  the  "  pound."  It  is  650  tons 
lighter  than  the  English  dock,  and  weight  for  weight 
more  efficient,  since  every  33  tons  has  a  lifting 
efficiency  of  100  tons,  equal  to  that  of  39  tons  in 

344 


Floating  Docks 


the  English  dock.  The  general  arrangement  of 
machinery  is  much  the  same  in  both  docks.  The 
Algiers  dock  is  moored  to  the  shore  by  two  pivoted 
and  hinged  booms,  which  are  useful  also  as  gangways. 

After  its  completion  by  the  Maryland  Steel  Com- 
pany, Sparrow's  Point,  Maryland,  it  was  transported 
to  its  berth  at  Algiers,  and  given  a  trial  with  the 
Illinois  of  about  12,000  tons.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
Sanspareil  the  docking  was  conducted  without  a 
hitch,  though  the  time  occupied  was  considerably 
less  than  that  of  the  Sheerness  trial.  The  contract 
time  for  raising  the  ship  clear  was  three  hours,  after 
pumping  had  once  begun.  It  actually  took  three 
hours  to  get  the  Illinois  in  position,  and  two  hours 
less  three  minutes  more  to  raise  the  pontoon  decks 
3  feet  above  water.  The  Americans  strengthen  the 
bilges  of  their  ironclads  with  strong  bilge  docking- 
keels,  forming  with  the  keel  proper  a  level  bottom, 
since  the  vessel  settles  on  the  three  bearings  simul- 
taneously. No  shores  are  required  except  those  used 
for  roughly  centering  the  vessel,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence a  vessel  might  be  completely  docked,  if 
built  on  the  American  plan,  in  the  time  taken  to 
adjust  one  constructed  on  English  lines.  It  remains 
to  be  proved  whether  the  presence  of  bilge  keels 
detracts  from  a  vessel's  speed.  If  not,  the  American 
practice  appears  very  preferable,  for  in  war-time  de- 
spatch in  all  operations  is  of  the  first  importance. 

Some  doubts  have  been  thrown  upon  the  stability 
of  the  floating-dock ;  and  indeed  it  does  look  at  first 

345 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

sight  as  though  a  large  tank  laden  with  an  ironclad 
might  lose  its  balance,  and  share  the  fate  of  the 
Royal  George,  But  practical  tests  banish  all  such 
fears ;  for  the  Havana  dock  so  burdened  would  re- 
quire an  effort  of  63,502  foot-tons  to  move  it  5 
degrees  out  of  the  perpendicular,  whilst  a  stress  of 
but  ^2802  foot-tons  would  incline  the  ironclad  to  the 
same  extent.  In  other  words  the  laden  dock  is  over 
twenty  times  as  stable  as  the  ship  itself ;  while  it  is 
never  likely  to  have  to  face  such  rough  weather. 

One  of  the  strongest  points  in  favour  of  this  type 
of  dock  is  its  mobility.  At  its  birth  it  is  constructed 
in  the  most  convenient  site  possible,  viz.,  the  yard 
of  the  shipbuilder.  On  launching  it  has  the  whole 
world  open  to  it.  From  England  one  goes  to  Stettin, 
another  to  Havana ;  a  third  to  Bermuda.  On  the 
American  side  the  voyage  from  Maryland  to  Algiers 
is  easily  made.  The  only  serious  mishap  in  such 
journeys  was  that  of  the  Durban  Dock,  which  went 
aground  and  became  a  wreck. 

Commercial  prosperity  not  unfrequently  deserts 
one  port  for  another.  The  floating-dock  can  follow, 
while  the  graving-dock  remains — idle.  Messrs.  Clark 
&  Standfield,  in  a  treatise  on  the  movable  type,  lay 
special  stress  on  the  value  of  mobility  in  war.  They 
see  no  reason  why  a  floating  dock,  convoyed  by  a 
powerful  tug,  and  fully  equipped  with  stores  and 
tools  suitable  for  rapid  repairs,  should  not  follow  the 
movements  of  a  fleet.  As  they  point  out,  the  first 
sea-fight  between  fairly  matched  fleets  would  leave  a 

346 


Floating  Docks 


number  of  wrecks  on  both  sides,  and  the  commander 
who  had  the  nearest  base,  and  so  could  *'come  up 
to  time"  again  the  first,  would  hold  an  enormous 
advantage. 

In  home  waters,  too,  the  dock  could  play  its  part. 
Arsenals  are  generally  placed  up  some  river  or  creek 
out  of  reach  of  the  enemies'  guns  on  the  open  sea. 
A  ship  disabled  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  for 
instance,  would  have  to  make  for  Chatham  up  the 
narrow  channel  of  the  Medway.  Were  she  to  sink 
in  the  channel  the  arsenal  would  be  effectively  cut 
off  from  any  other  ships  in  need  of  assistance.  The 
floating-dock  could  be  moved  down  the  Thames  ready 
to  pick  up  any  of  the  "lame  ducks,"  and  give  them 
"  first-aid "  in  the  shape  of  temporary  repairs  that 
would  make  their  hulls  tight  and  in  a  fit  state  to 
navigate  the  home  channels  to  the  fully  equipped  and 
protected  base  hospitals  or  arsenals.  It  has  been 
pointed  out,  with  regard  to  the  new  Gibraltar  docks, 
that  they  are  open  to  the  fire  of  the  enemy  from 
several  points ;  and  the  proposition  made  to  add  or 
substitute  a  floating-dock  which  could  lie  in  the  har- 
bour almost  submerged  by  day,  and  at  night  rise  to 
pick  up  ships  needing  assistance,  or  even  be  towed 
round  to  the  other  side  of  Europa  Point,  where  it 
would  be  protected  by  the  headlands. 

In  addition  to  mobility,  the  floating -dock  may 
claim  the  following  advantages.  It  can  be  rapidly 
constructed,  and  its  price  more  accurately  calculated 
than  in  the  case  of  a  graving-dock.    As  an  example 

347 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

of  quick  erection,  we  may  instance  the  Havana  Dock 
— of  10,000  tons  lifting  power — completed  in  i8i  days 
from  the  date  of  laying  the  first  plate.  This  contrasts 
favourably  with  the  average  time  of  three  or  four 
years  required  for  the  construction  of  a  graving-dock 
of  equal  capacity. 

From  the  workman's  point  of  view,  also  the  "floater" 
has  its  recommendation.  Instead  of  having  to  work 
at  the  bottom  of  a  hole  where  the  light  is  bad  and  the 
air  damp,  he  finds  himself  on  a  well-lighted  platform 
swept  by  breezes — which  quickly  dry  the  paint — and 
free  from  the  discomfort  often  caused  by  leakage  into 
a  graving-dock. 

The  latter,  if  properly  made,  is  more  durable  than 
its  metal  rival.  But  in  these  days  of  rapid  advance, 
types  become  obsolete  so  soon  that  this  objection 
need  not  be  considered.  The  best  testimonial  to  the 
general  advantages  of  the  floating-dOck  is  that  the 
number  of  such  structures  increases  from  year  to 
year.  The  more  they  are  used  the  more  they  are 
liked. 


348 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  ROMANCE  OF  PETROLEUM 

Second  to  none  in  commercial  importance  is  the 
commodity  which,  in  its  different  forms,  lights  mil- 
lions of  homes  when  the  sun  goes  down,  sends  loco- 
motives spinning  along  the  iron  way,  makes  the 
motor-car  hum  over  our  roads,  supplies  us  with  heat 
for  cooking  and  many  industries,  lubricates  millions 
of  machines,  has  valuable  medicinal  properties,  and 
touches  our  daily  life  at  other  points  too  numerous 
to  mention  here. 

Petroleum,  or  rock-oil,  has  been  known  to  mankind 
since  the  dawn  of  history.  Herodotus  has  celebrated 
the  naphtha  springs  of  Zacynthus,  Pliny  those  of 
Agrigentum.  Many  years  later  Marco  Polo  quaintly 
wrote  of  Baku  on  the  Caspian  :  ''There  is  a  fountain 
of  great  abundance,  inasmuch  as  a  hundred  shiploads 
might  be  taken  from  it  at  one  time.  This  oil  is  not 
good  to  use  with  food,  but  it  is  good  to  burn  ;  and  is 
also  used  to  anoint  camels  that  have  the  mange. 
People  come  from  vast  distances  to  fetch  it,  for  in  all 
countries  there  is  no  other  oil  like  it." 

The  last  sentence,  fortunately  for  mankind,  is  in- 
accurate, since  petroleum  is  very  widely  distributed 
th^owghout  t^ie  world.    At  present  the  United  States 

349 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

and  the  Caspian  region  are  the  greatest  oil-fields  of 
the  world,  as  regards  the  quantities  extracted  for 
human  uses ;  but  huge  deposits  exist  in  China,  Siberia, 
Burmah,  Asia  Minor,  Canada,  Mexico,  Peru,  waiting 
for  their  turn ;  and  doubtless  as  the  world  is  better 
known  fresh  oil-bearing  areas  will  be  discovered. 

In  Marco  Polo's  time  men,  as  we  have  seen,  "  came 
vast  distances  to  fetch  "  petroleum.  To-day  petroleum 
comes  thousands  of  miles  to  every  country,  town, 
village  of  the  civilised  world  !  It  will  be  interesting 
to  give  some  account  of  the  engineering  aspects  of 
the  system  of  supply,  which  circulates  many  millions 
of  barrels  of  the  useful  fluid  every  year ;  with  refer- 
ence to  the  processes  for  raising  and  distilling  petro- 
leum. 

In  this  connection  we  will  confine  our  attention 
to  the  great  oil-areas  of  America  and  Russia,  where 
the  crude  oil  occupies  innumerable  cavities  of  the 
earth,  ready  to  give  up  their  treasures  the  moment  the 
engineer  has  done  his  share  of  the  work. 

The  antecedents  of  petroleum  have  been  much  de- 
bated, whether  they  are  of  a  chemical  nature,  and 
therefore  connected  with  distillation  that  occurred 
while  the  Earth  was  in  the  making ;  or  are  to  be  con- 
sidered organic,  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of 
vegetable  and  animal  substances  in  far-off  ages.  In 
recent  times  the  latter  view  has  been  much  taken  up 
by  chemists.  Further  interest  attaches  to  the  question 
whether  the  supply  of  mineral  oil  is  a  fixed  quantity ; 
or  whether  it  is  still  manufactured  by  Nature  in  her 

350 


The  Romance  of  Petroleum 

subterranean  laboratories.  Should  the  former  hypo- 
thesis be  correct,  we  must  regard  the  deposits  of 
petroleum  as  vast  storehouses  which,  when  once 
emptied,  will  resemble  a  worked-out  bed  of  coal. 

It  has,  however,  been  proved  that  petroleum  oc- 
curs in  geological  formations  of  all  periods  from  the 
Silurian  to  the  Tertiary,  though  most  abundant  in 
these  two,  especially  the  Silurian,  with  which  is 
closely  connected  the  carboniferous  stratum  of  the 
Coal  Age. 

The  formation  of  large  petroleum  deposits  is  depen- 
dent on  three  conditions  :  the  presence  of  a  certain 
class  of  matter,  converted  into  oil  by  the  process  of 
time ;  a  porous  stratum  to  contain  the  oil ;  and  an  im- 
pervious stratum  above  to  prevent  evaporation  and 
displacement  by  water.  When  the  oil  is  particularly 
well  sealed  in  by  superincumbent  matter,  the  formation 
of  gas  subjects  it  to  great  pressure,  sometimes  rising  to 
800  to  1000  lbs.  per  square  inch,  which  proves  itself, 
as  we  shall  see,  a  valuable  ally  to  the  engineer. 

The  petroleum  industry  may  be  said  to  date  from 
the  year  1859,  when  one  Colonel  Drake  sank  a  well 
at  Titus-ville  in  Pennsylvania,  and  "struck  ile" — 
otherwise  a  fortune — in  a  "  spouter "  that  emitted  a 
copious  supply  of  the  crude  material.  A  year  later 
came  the  American  Civil  War;  and  not  till  that 
terrible  conflict  was  over  did  American  enterprise 
thoroughly  rouse  itself  to  exploit  petroleum.  Then 
followed  scenes  which  can  be  paralleled  only  in  the 
Californian  and  Australian  gold  rushes,  for  the  eager- 

351 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

ness  with  which  men  settled  on  virgin  tracts,  ex- 
pended their  all  in  the  search  for  the  hidden  treasure, 
and,  if  successful,  gathered  about  them  towns  which 
flourished  awhile  and  then  fell  into  decay  as  the  fields 
became  exhausted.  And  like  the  gold-miner,  the  oil 
prospector  might  suddenly  stumble  on  riches,  or  con- 
tinue his  search,  hoping  against  hope,  till  beggary 
stared  him  in  the  face. 

Every  year  witnessed  the  opening  of  new  territory, 
— Indiana,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  California,  Texas, 
Wyoming,  Kansas.  By  1900  the  output  had  risen  to 
57,070,850  barrels,  which  multiplied  by  40  gives  the 
total  in  gallons.  In  1901,  the  daily  product  was 
156,182  barrrels.  Yet,  in  18 19,  it  was  considered  a 
mishap  to  stumble  upon  petroleum  when  sinking  a 
brine-well ! 

Colonel  Drake,  the  pioneer  of  the  industry,  drove 
an  iron  pipe  36  feet  into  the  rock  when  boring  for 
oil  in  the  valley  of  Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania.  This 
device,  necessary  in  many  cases  to  hold  back  the 
water  in  overlying  strata,  is  now  generally  adopted 
for  the  American  wells. 

Having  selected  a  likely  spot,  the  prospector  rears 
a  derrick,  or  lofty  wooden  frame,  70  feet  high,  in  form 
a  truncated  pyramid,  resting  on  a  foundation  of  heavy 
timbers,  enclosing  the  space  in  which  the  well  will  be 
sunk.  To  one  side  of  the  derrick  is  a  strong  upright 
post,  on  which  a  stout  timber,  called  the  "walking 
beam,"  works  see-saw  fashion,  actuated  by  a  steam- 
engine  at  the  one  end,  and  at  the  other  moving  a  rod 

352 


The  Romance  of  Petroleum 

connected  with  the  boring  tools.  The  latter,  in 
American  practice,  are  attached  to  a  rope,  which  can 
be  paid  out  as  the  depth  increases,  and  quickly  wound 
on  to  special  reels  when  the  tools  have  to  be  raised 
for  renewal  or  replacement.  The  series  of  drilling 
apparatus,  taken  downwards  from  the  walking-beam, 
is  as  follows  : — 

1.  A  *' temper-screw,"  to  which  is  fastened 

2.  The  rope,  2000  to  3000  feet  long. 

3.  The  "sinker-bar,"  a  solid  rod  of  iron,  about 
20  feet  in  length. 

4.  The  "jars,"  a  pair  of  heavy  links,  allowing  about 
13  inches  of  "play,"  so  that  the  sinker-bar  may  not 
strike  hard  on  the  boring  tools,  but  yet  by  its  mo- 
mentum on  the  up  stroke  loosen  them  when  the  links 
suddenly  tighten. 

5.  The  auger-stem,  to  which  is  screwed  the 

6.  Auger  or  centre  bit. 

The  well -sinker,  having  his  tackle  all  ready,  begins 
operations  by  passing  the  rope  over  a  pulley  at  the 
top  of  the  derrick  and  round  one  of  the  drums  con- 
nected with  the  winding  gear.  The  engine  is  then 
started,  and  the  operator,  by  alternately  slackening 
and  tightening  the  rope,  causes  the  bars  and  borer  to 
fall  and  rise  ;  taking  great  care  that  the  first  length 
of  shaft  shall  be  quite  perpendicular. 

As  soon  as  a  sufficient  depth  has  been  reached, 
and  while  the  auger  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft, 
he  threads  the  rope  through  the  temper-bar  on  the 

353  z 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

free  end  of  the  walking-beam.  The  rope  is  pulled  up 
until  the  "jars"  are  in  contact,  and  then  lowered 
about  4  inches,  and  made  firm  in  the  temper-bar. 

The  walking-beam  has  a  stroke  of  24  inches.  The 
first  stroke  up  does  not  move  the  auger  from  its  work 
until  the  beam  has  risen  4  inches,  when  the  jars  pluck 
at  the  auger-stem  and  raise  it  20  inches.  On  the 
down  stroke  the  sinker-bar  and  top  jar  fall  the  full 
24  inches,  but  the  auger  and  stem  and  lower  jar  only 
20  inches  plus  the  penetration  of  the  fall.  An  attendant 
gives  the  temper-screw  a  slight  turn  between  every 
two  strokes,  so  that  the  auger  may  continually  change 
its  transverse  direction,  and  be  able  to  sink  in  without 
closing  up  the  play  of  the  jars.  When  the  screw  is 
run  out,  the  rope  is  undamped,  the  screw  wound 
back,  and  the  adjustment  made  for  a  fresh  attack ;  or, 
if  need  be,  the  winding  drums  are  put  into  action, 
the  tools  are  drawn  up,  and  the  well  cleared  of  sand 
or  rock  splinters  by  a  pecular  form  of  "  shell "  auger. 

In  this  manner  a  hole  is  sunk,  8  inches  in  diameter, 
to  a  depth  where  water  is  no  longer  encountered  ; 
and  lined  with  a  drive-pipe.  Through  this  the  boring 
continues  to  a  point  300  to  400  feet  below  the  surface, 
where  an  inner  pipe,  called  the  casing-pipe,  5^^  inches 
across,  also  terminates.  Again  smaller  drills  are  used, 
until  oil  is  struck. 

A  torpedo  is  then  lowered  into  the  well  —  i  to 
25  gallons  of  nitro  -  glycerine  —  and  fired  by  per- 
cussion. The  explosion  shatters  the  walls  of  the 
bottom  of  the  shaft,  and  releases  the  petroleum  from 

354 


The  Romance  of  Petroleum 

m)n:iads  of  small  cavities,  besides  splitting  the  stratum. 
Soon  afterwards  the  oil  spurts  from  the  mouth  of  the 
shaft,  accompanied  by  fragments  of  the  canisters  that 
contained  the  explosives  and  a  shower  of  pebbles. 

The  next  thing  to  do  is  to  prepare  the  well  for 
flowing.  A  2-inch  pipe,  perforated  at  the  bottom, 
is  let  down  to  the  oil-level,  after  being  provided  with 
a  rubber  packing  to  jam  against  the  sides  of  the  bore. 
The  pressure  of  the  imprisoned  gas  drives  the  oil  up 
the  pipe  like  soda-water  from  a  syphon.  When  its 
force  has  expended  itself,  a  pump  is  inserted  into  the 
pipe,  and  the  oil  is  lifted  to  the  surface. 

On  the  Caspian  shore  the  greatest  oil-fields  are 
those  of  the  Apsheron  Peninsula,  at  the  east  end  of 
the  Caucasus.  Its  1200  square  miles  are  saturated 
with  petroleum  like  a  sponge  soaked  in  water.  The 
geological  foundation  of  the  Caucasus  dips  under 
the  Caspian  and  re-appears  on  the  farther  side ;  its 
course  being  marked  by  gas-bubbles  which  have  at 
times  risen  with  sufficient  violence  to  capsize  boats, 
, while  the  exuded  oil  is  swept  by  gales  into  the 
harbour  of  Baku,  where  the  careless  throwing  away 
of  a  match  may  set  the  Caspian  on  fire  far  and  wide. 

The  oil-fields  of  Balachani,  Sabuntchi,  Bibi-Eibat, 
Romany,  and  Binagadi,  are  covered  thickly  with 
derricks  differing  in  shape  little  from  the  American 
type.  The  Russian  prospector  uses  both  cables  and 
rods  to  move  his  drills,  but  has  a  preference  for  rods. 
As  the  Baku  oil-fields  do  not  hold  so  much  gas  under 
compression  as  those  of  Pennsylvania,  a  "  spouter  "  is 

355 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

a  comparatively  rare  occurrence,  though  extremely 
copious  when  it  does  put  in  an  appearance.  The 
majority  of  Russian  oil  is  therefore  brought  up  by 
baling ;  and  that  the  baler — a  steel  tube  20  to  30  feet 
long — may  have  a  reasonable  diameter,  the  well 
must  be  bored  to  a  considerable  size  in  its  lowest 
depth,  usually  800  feet.  Water  being  present  in  the 
upper  strata  the  well-sinker  has  to  line  his  shaft 
throughout,  and,  accordingly,  begins  with  an  opening 
28  to  30  inches  across.  As  the  drilling  goes  on,  the 
tube  lining  is  forced  down  under  great  pressure,  until 
it  is  deemed  advisable  to  contract  the  bore.  Then  a 
tube  of  smaller  diameter  is  passed  through  the  first 
and  sunk,  and  as  this  process  is  continued  the  well 
lining  resembles  a  huge  telescope — one  that  will 
never  be  closed.  The  "eye-end"  {ix,  lowest  tube) 
may  be  8  inches  to  a  foot  across. 

The  greatest  calamity  that  can  overtake  the  en- 
gineer is  the  snapping  of  his  rope  or  rods.  Or 
perhaps  something  falls  down  the  well  and  jams  the 
borer  against  the  steel  lining.  Six  months  of  hard 
and  expensive  labour  with  a  host  of  different  tweezers, 
probes,  cutters,  hooks,  attached  to  the  end  of  hundreds 
of  feet  of  rope  may  be  necessary  for  the  removal  of 
the  obstruction.  Fishing  for  the  Atlantic  Cable  was 
child's-play  in  comparison  with  the  rescue  of  a  drill 
from  the  bottom  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  tubing. 

As  soon  as  the  clearing  auger  begins  to  bring  up  a 
slimy,  yellow  sand  the  engineer  rejoices,  for  he  knows 
that  he  has  obtained  his  reward.    The  baler,  furnished 

356 


The  Romance  of  Petroleum 

with  a  valve  at  the  bottom,  is  fixed  to  the  rope  in 
place  of  the  drill,  and  cautiously  lowered,  time  after 
time,  until  nothing  but  pure  oil  comes  up.  Then  the 
baling  commences  in  real  earnest,  without  any  tor- 
pedoing, which  would  probably  do  more  harm  than 
good  by  driving  great  quantities  of  sand  into  the  bore. 

Well-digging  is  always  a  speculation.  And  deep  is 
the  joy  of  the  prospector  when,  by  a  good  stroke  of 
fortune,  his  borer  chances  on  a  cavity  where  there 
is  imprisoned  a  large  volume  of  gas.  A  Russian 
"  spouter  "  is  a  fine  sight,  rising  300  or  400  feet  into 
the  air,  after  very  probably  demolishing  the  derrick 
and  its  machinery.  The  proprietor  cares  nothing  for 
this  damage,  as  the  fountain  is  pouring  out  in  a 
minute,  free  of  charge,  as  much  petroleum  as  could 
be  baled  in  a  day.  Such  a  spouter  has  been  known 
to  fling  out  100,000  barrels  in  twenty-four  hours  ; 
though,  of  course,  the  rate  of  flow  rapidly  diminishes 
after  the  first  few  days. 

The  average  life  of  a  well  is  five  years.  In  excep- 
tional cases,  however,  oil  is  raised  in  commercial 
quantities  for  thrice  that  time.  In  1899  the  huge  sum 
of  ;£2,6oo,ooo  was  spent  on  boring  alone ;  and  the 
output  of  the  Apsheron  was  52  million  barrels.  It  is 
noticeable  that  the  depth  of  new  wells  increases  from 
year  to  year. 

Owing  to  the  copiousness  of  the  Russian  spouter, 
the  engineer  must  be  prepared  with  proper  means  for 
catching  a  sudden  outflow,  otherwise  he  may  see 
a  fortune  running  to  waste  under  his  very  eyes.    The 

357 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

oil,  as  fast  as  it  rises,  is  caught  in  a  sort  of  compound, 
whence  it  is  carried  by  channels  to  the  reservoirs, 
where  the  sand  is  allowed  to  settle  before  the  liquid  is 
let  off  through  pipes  to  the  refineries  at  Black  Town, 

With  so  much  petroleum  about,  in  the  earth,  on 
the  earth,  in  the  air,  in  everything  (including  food), 
it  is  not  a  matter  for  surprise  that  disastrous  fires 
should  occur,  especially  in  hot  weather,  when  a  mere 
spark  is  dangerous.  Sometimes  an  open  settling 
reservoir  ignites ;  and  then  is  seen  a  sight  of  unsur- 
passed grandeur,  as  a  huge  inky  cloud  rolls  its  fat 
folds  of  smoke  for  miles  over  the  landscape.  Nothing 
can  be  done  to  quell  such  a  conflagration.  But  when 
a  spouter  catches  fire  a  remedy  is  at  hand.  Scrap 
metal  is  collected  from  all  quarters,  and  heaped  round 
the  well  mouth  in  the  form  of  a  crater.  Then  steam 
pipes  are  applied,  and  the  base  of  the  flame  is  blown 
high  in  the  air,  separated  from  its  source  of  supply  by 
a  tract  of  unignited  gas.  At  a  favourable  moment  the 
metal  crater  is  thrust  inward  on  to  the  orifice,  and 
the  flame  immediately  dies  of  starvation. 

In  its  natural  state  petroleum  is  of  so  composite  a 
character,  that  it  must  be  passed  through  the  refinery, 
and  its  various  '*  layers  "  sorted  out  by  the  still. 

This  is  in  idea  a  huge  closed  upright  cylinder  with 
a  capacity  of  10,000  to  40,000  gallons,  heated  by 
furnaces  beneath,  and  connected  by  pipes,  passing 
through  cold  water,  to  the  receptacles  for  catching 
the  products  of  distillation. 

The  first  bodies  to  pass  off  from  the  crude  oil  are 

358 


The  Romance  of  Petroleum 

the  very  volatile  gases,  which  are  condensed  back 
into  naphtha  and  petrol.  The  still  is  then  cooled,  and 
heated  again,  this  time  to  a  higher  temperature, 
driving  off  the  illuminating  oils.  Then  follow  in 
succession  the  thick  lubricating  oils,  greases  (such 
as  vaseline),  and  tar. 

Russian  refiners  often  use,  in  the  place  of  a  single 
still  heated  to  different  temperatures,  a  series  of 
smaller  stills  through  which  the  crude  oil  slowly 
passes,  giving  off  in  each  still  the  bodies  volatilised 
by  the  temperature  of  that  particular  still,  which  is 
not  the  same  as  that  of  the  rest  of  the  series.  It  is 
claimed  for  this  principle  that  a  great  saving  of  time 
and  fuel  is  effected,  since  there  is  no  delay  for  cooling 
down  or  drawing  the  fires. 

American  petroleum  is  much  richer  in  the  illumi- 
nating oils  than  is  the  Russian.  And  the  latter  is 
proportionately  more  fitted  for  use  as  liquid  fuel, 
after  the  volatile  elements,  which  would  be  dangerous 
in  a  firebox,  have  been  driven  o£F  by  distillation. 
The  heavy  residuum,  known  as  astaktiy  was  for  years 
found  to  be  an  encumbrance,  as  the  Russian  refiners 
were  chiefly  interested  in  producing  lamp  oil.  But 
Mr.  Nobel,  a  Swede,  conceived  the  idea  of  utilising 
the  hitherto  waste  product,  by  spraying  or  atomising 
it  with  steam,  and  introducing  it  in  this  state  into  a 
furnace.  As  a  result,  the  astakti  has  become  of  great 
commercial  value ;  raises  practically  all  the  steam- 
power  in  South  Russia,  on  both  land  and  river,  and 
is  being  used  in  an  increasing  number  of  locomotive 

359 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

and  marine  fireboxes  throughout  the  world,  on  ac- 
count of  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  stoked,  its 
comparative  cleanliness,  and  the  convenience  and 
economy  attending  its  storage. 

The  American  has  copied  the  Russian  example 
with  Texas  fuel,  which  closely  resembles  the  Caspian 
astakti,  Texas  petroleum  is  naturally  rich  in  sul- 
phur, which  interferes  with  both  storage  and  combus- 
tion. But  a  method  of  precipitating  the  sulphur 
economically  has  been  discovered,  and  now  Texas 
fuel  is  produced  transcending  the  Russian  article  in 
its  caloric  qualities.  Large  quantities  are  stored  at 
Thames  Haven,  whence  they  are  distributed  through- 
out the  south  of  England,  replacing  the  "black 
diamond"  to  no  small  extent. 

Dr.  Boverton  Redwood  has  calculated  that  the 
world's  consumption  of  petroleum  represents  a  con- 
tinuous flow,  at  the  rate  of  3  miles  an  hour,  through 
a  41-inch  pipe  !  and  that  the  storage  of  a  year's  supply 
would  require  for  its  accommodation  a  tank  929  feet 
high,  long,  and  broad  ! 

The  profitable  distribution  of  such  an  immense 
quantity  of  liquid  has  taxed  the  ingenuity  of  those 
connected  with  the  traffic.  American  practice  esta- 
blishes the  refineries  and  reservoirs  far  from  the  oil- 
fields, near  the  sea,  so  that,  after  refining,  the  oil  may 
be  shipped  with  little  delay. 

But  how  to  get  the  petroleum  from  well  to  refinery  ? 
Oil-fields  are  generally  in  rough  country,  difficult  of 
approach  by  rail  or  road.     Wheeled  transport  was 

360 


Petroleum  '' Spoiifcrs"  on  Fire  at  Baku. 

In  hot  weather    when  there  is  a  quantitj^  of  inflammable  gas  about,  such  fires  are 
by  no  means  rare. 

[To  face  p.  360. 


The  Romance  of  Petroleum 

therefore  found  expensive,  and  gradually  gave  way 
to  a  system  of  transmission  by  pipe-line  from  the 
wells  to  the  seaports. 

Individual  wells  are  connected  by  small  pipes  to 
the  trunk-lines,  which  are  operated  by  companies. 
The  proprietor  of  a  well  runs  off  from  his  own  reser- 
voirs, say,  10,000  barrels,  for  which  he  obtains  a  receipt, 
negotiable  like  an  ordinary  cheque.  There  his  part 
of  the  transaction  ends. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company,  the  largest  of  its 
kind,  collects  the  products  of  the  Pennsylvania,  West 
Virginia,  and  Ohio  fields  into  storage  tanks  at  Olean, 
N.Y.,  about  75  miles  from  Buffalo,  with  an  aggre- 
gate capacity  of  9,000,000  barrels.  From  this  point 
starts  the  great  trunk-line,  composed  of  three  6-inch 
wrought-iron  pipes,  which  run  for  400  miles  to  New 
York  Harbour.  There  are  twelve  pumping  stations 
on  the  line,  spaced  about  35  miles  apart,  to  pass  on 
the  oil  at  a  pressure  of  about  1000  lbs.  to  the  square 
inch.  In  this  manner  some  1,200,000  gallons  are 
transferred  daily  from  Olean  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard, 
where  they  are  converted  by  the  refineries  into  burn- 
ing and  lubricating  oils,  and  stored  in  immense  iron 
and  steel  tanks  until  required  for  shipment  to  foreign 
markets.  **The  main  pipe-line  is  divided  into  divi- 
sions and  sections,  much  like  a  trunk  railway  system, 
and  has,  similarly,  its  division  superintendents  and 
engineers,  section  foremen,  line  gangs  and  line  walkers, 
telegraph  stations,  and  daily  reports.  The  system 
works  quietly  and  smoothly,  and  as  the  pipes  are 

361 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

buried  under  ground  from  i  to  2  feet,  and  run  through 
a  sparsely  settled  country,  the  general  public  sees  or 
hears  but  little  of  the  system."  ^ 

Similar  trunk-lines  extend  from  the  Ohio  fields  to 
Chicago,  and  from  West  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania 
to  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore. 

The  Russians  are  slowly  adopting  the  American 
plan  of  transport.  Unfortunately  for  the  Baku  trade 
the  refineries  had  been  already  established  on  the 
Caspian,  and  to  transfer  the  refining  industry  to  the 
Black  Sea  would  entail  great  loss  to  the  proprietors 
of  present  installations.  Also  the  Black-Sea-Caspian 
Railway  could  not  spare  the  revenue  derived  from  the 
carriage  of  petroleum  on  its  tank-cars. 

The  stress  of  competition  has,  however,  driven  the 
oil-merchants  to  the  pipe-line  for  part  of  the  distance 
between  Baku  and  Batoum.  Already  an  8-inch  line 
has  been  laid  from  Batoum  to  Michaelov,  a  station 
on  the  railway  140  miles  from  the  Black  Sea.  For 
the  remaining  420  miles  the  tank-cars  are  employed  ; 
but  the  shortening  of  the  journey  has -greatly  increased 
the  amount  transported  daily.  In  time  the  line  will  be 
completed,  and  wheeled  carriage  be  entirely  obviated. 

Prior  to  1886  all  American  oil  imported  into  Great 
Britain  came  in  barrels.  Since  that  year  tank  steamers 
have  been  introduced  generally  in  the  petroleum- 
carrying  trade.  These  steamers  contain  from  six 
to  ten  double  compartments,  each  holding  from 
85,000  gallons  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  steamers  to 

^  Cassier^s  Magazine., 
362 


The  Romance  of  Petroleum 

250,000  gallons  in  steamers  of  the  largest  size.  The 
tanks  are  separated  from  the  engines  and  boilers  by 
a  safety  well  or  empty  space,  which  is  sometimes  filled 
with  water ;  and  the  total  cargo  of  oil  in  bulk  carried 
in  this  manner  is  equivalent  to  25,000  to  70,000  barrels. 
In  addition  to  the  fifteen  steamers  which  the  Anglo- 
American  Oil  Company  now  possesses,  it  is  building 
what  will  prove  to  be,  when  finished,  the  largest  tank 
steamer  in  the  world,  with  an  oil  capacity  of  10,500 
tons  in  bulk,  or  73,500  barrels. 

On  arriving  at  its  journey's  end  the  petroleum  is 
stored  into  great  circular  tanks  at  Purfleet,  Birken- 
head, Hull,  Sunderland,  Newcastle,  Avonmouth, 
Plymouth,  Belfast,  and  Dublin.  The  Purfleet  instal- 
lation covers  30  acres,  on  which  rise  many  gasometer- 
shaped  receptacles,  and  mountainous  piles  of  empty 
barrels.  In  all  important  towns  are  subsidiary  storage 
depdts,  and  the  oil  is  conveyed  to  them  by  means 
of  railway  tank  waggons,  consisting  of  a  cylindrical 
boiler-plate  tank,  with  a  capacity  of  3000  gallons, 
placed  horizontally  on  a  flat  carriage. 

From  the  300  provincial  depots  the  oil  is  distributed 
in  road-tanks  to  the  shopkeepers,  from  whom  it  finds 
its  way  to  the  consumer. 

Colonel  Drake,  drilling  in  the  quiet  Pennsylvania 
valley  in  1859,  would  have  needed  a  more  prophetic 
mind  than  that  of  Mother  Shipton  herself  to  foresee 
the  benefits  he  was  conferring  on  the  world  by  laying 
the  foundation  of  the  mightiest  trade  development 
history  has  ever  recorded,  a  development  that  in  less 

3^3 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

than  forty  years  has  embraced  every  corner  of  the 
globe,  and  brought  Hght  and  heat  and  comfort  to 
hundreds  of  millions  of  human  beings.  It  has  been 
truly  said  that  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California 
was  not  so  pregnant  with  the  welfare  of  the  human 
race,  since  gold  concerns  the  few  and  light  concerns 
us  all.  .^  Also  that  we  accept  as  a  matter  of  course  the 
commoner  facts  of  our  existence,  and  rarely  turn 
our  thoughts  to  the  ways  and  means  by  which  our 
wants  are  satisfied.  Quite  a  long  chapter  has  been 
written  on  the  antecedents  of  a  plum  -  pudding ; 
the  ingredients  of  which  are  the  outcome  of  much 
labour  working  hand  in  hand  with  Nature.  And 
those  who  know  can  fashion  quite  an  entertaining 
story  to  accompany  the  lighting  of  the  family  lamp, 
directing  the  listener's  thoughts  to  the  Norwegian 
forest  whence  came  the  wood  for  the  match,  to  the 
Carolina  cotton -fields  that  contributed  the  material 
for  the  wick,  to  the  Pennsylvanian  and  Russian  oil- 
fields, where  the  illuminant  was  won  from  the  dark- 
ness of  the  nether  earth  ;  to  the  Bohemian  glassworks 
that  fashioned  the  transparent  tube  which  draws  the 
flame  into  the  bright  radiance  of  perfect  combustion. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  natural  gas  which  aids 
the  oil  miner  by  driving  the  petroleum  deposits  to  the 
surface.  In  some  parts  of  America,  notably  Indiana 
and  Ohio,  it  occurs  in  such  volumes  as  to  become  a 
valuable  commodity  that  can  be  turned  to  good 
account  as  a  lighting  and  heating  agent. 

An  adit  is  bored  to  the  subterranean  gas  cavities, 
364 


The   Romance  of  Petroleum 

and  the  issuing  gas  is  collected  from  the  various 
wells  ;  if  so,  they  may  be  called  into  central  reservoirs 
for  propulsion  through  trunk  pipe-lines  to  distant 
centres  of  industry.  One  such  line  connects  the 
Indiana  wells,  some  sixty  in  number,  with  Chicago, 
140  miles  away.  Compressors,  which  can  be  worked 
at  a  maximum  pressure  of  2000  lbs.  per  square  inch, 
force  the  gas  into  the  mains  under  a  stress  of  300  lbs. 
The  mains  are  two  8-inch  wrought-iron  pipes,  laid 
under  ground,  and  connected  at  intervals  by  a  '^by- 
pass," which  enables  the  contents  of  either  to  be 
switched  into  the  other  channel.  At  the  Indiana 
boundary  line  the  "pressure  is  "  stepped  down  "  to 
40  lbs.,  and  the  diameter  of  the  pipes  increased  to 
10  inches;  from  which  it  issues  on  reaching  the 
town  at  a  i-lb.  pressure  into  an  extensive  system  of 
distributing  mains  ramifying  throughout  the  streets. 
Pittsburg  is  in  like  manner  supplied  from  Ohio  with 
a  natural  power  which,  even  when  conveyed  for  many 
miles  to  the  consumer,  still  costs  less  than  the  same 
power  produced  on  the  spot.  The  utility  of  the  gas 
may  be  estimated  from  the  consumption,  which  in 
Chicago  rises  to  several  million  cubic  feet  daily  ; ; while 
in  Pittsburg  it  has  to  a  great  extent  ousted  coal, 
though  some  of  the  most  extensive  coal-fields  of 
America  are  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town.  In 
course  of  time  the  natural-gas  supplies  will  be  ex- 
hausted, and  Pittsburgians  will  turn  again  to  King 
Coal,  if  that  monarch  has  not  been  already  dethroned 
by  the  electricity  from  Niagara 

365 


CHAPTER  XIX 

ARTESIAN    WELLS 

In  our  third  chapter  we  treated  of  the  artificial  river, 
the  aqueduct,  confined  to  its  course  by  walls  of  rock, 
cement,  and  metal. 

The  artificial  spring,  being  of  at  least  equal  import- 
ance as  a  source  of  water-supply,  is  also  worthy  of 
notice  ;  and  the  reader  will  probably  be  interested  to 
learn  some  facts  concerning  the  thousands  of  holes 
with  which  the  engineer  has  riddled  the  upper  crusts 
of  the  earth  in  his  search  for  the  pure  fluid  that  is  so 
necessary  an  adjunct  to  our  daily  life. 

The  type  of  well  that  most  often  strikes  our 
attention  is  a  hole  several  feet  in  diameter,  lined  with 
brick  and  cement,  into  which  water  collects  from  the 
surface.  Sometimes  the  "  dug-out "  is  of  considerable 
depth,  and  as  we  peer  cautiously  over  the  brink  we 
behold  our  reflections  far  below  in  what  appear  to  be 
the  very  abysses  of  the  earth. 

Such  a  well  is  often  picturesque  and  useful.  But 
its  day  has  passed — at  anyrate  in  thickly-peopled 
districts.  For  the  chemist,  with  his  test-tubes  and 
microscope,  and  delicate  scales,  has  but  too  often  a 
doleful  tale  to  tell  of  the  contents  of  such  receptacles. 
Even   if    their    main   supply  comes  from  below,  a 

366 


Artesian  Wells 

certain  amount  of  leakage  from  the  surface  is  inevit- 
able, and  the  "  merry  microbe  "  soon  finds  its  way  in, 
to  the  condemnation  of  the  whole  supply. 

Sometimes  we  may  see,  in  newly  developed  building 
properties,  or  even  in  the  open  country,  a  small  gang 
of  men  busy  round  a  steel  tripod,  raising  and  lifting  a 
vertical  bar,  on  which  their  attention  is  centred.  If 
our  curiosity  is  sufficiently  aroused  to  cause  a  closer 
inspection,  we  observe  that  the  bar  is  slowly,  but 
surely,  eating  its  way  downwards,  and  that  other  bars 
have  to  be  screwed  on  to  it  from  time  to  time  ;  these 
also  disappearing  in  turn. 

The  driving  of  an  Artesian  well  is  in  progress.  The 
workmen  have  good  reason  to  suppose  that  beneath 
their  feet  exists  a  natural  reservoir  of  good  water.  It 
may  be  loo  feet  down,  or  perhaps  looo,  and  their 
duty  is  to  hunt  for  it  until  found,  when  it  may  gush 
from  the  bore-hole  in  a  fountain,  after  the  manner  of 
a  petroleum  '^  spouter,"  or  merely  rise  to  a  level  from 
which  pumps  will  bring  it  to  the  surface. 

The  word  Artesian  is  connected  with  the  French 
province  of  Artois,  where  this  method  of  well-boring 
was  first  practised  in  Europe,  though  known  to  the 
Chinese  for  centuries  previously. 

It  may  appear,  at  first  sight,  a  mystery  that 
in  many  places  a  well  can  be  sunk  for,  say,  50 
feet,  without  yielding  any  sign  of  water,  and  yet 
deliver  a  copious  amount  if  the  boring  be  continued 
for  another  500  feet.  The  riddle  is,  however, 
easily  solved. 

367 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

Imagine  a  huge  natural  basin,  many  miles  across, 
lined  all  round  with  clay  or  some  other  impermeable 
stratum ;  on  the  top  of  that  a  porous  layer  of  chalk, 
sandstone,  or  sand ;  on  the  top  of  that  again  more 
clay.  Perhaps  in  the  course  of  centuries  the  basin  is 
filled  up  level  by  deposits  of  various  natures,  and 
finally  a  town  built  over  it.  We  may  suppose  that  the 
area  of  the  basin  is  not  blessed  with  a  heavy  rainfall ; 
but  that  its  rim  on  one  or  more  sides  emerges  from 
the  earth  near  a  range  of  hills,  or  even  mountains, 
which  cause  the  condensation  of  the  clouds  passing 
over  them.  The  water  running  down  the  slopes 
encounters  the  basin-rim,  sinks  into  it,  and  finds  its 
way  between  the  water-tight  strata  to  the  lowest  point 
unoccupied.  In  course  of  time  the  basin  lining  has 
sucked  in  all  that  it  can  hold,  and  overflows  at  the 
rim.  But  the  water  may  become  contaminated  as  it 
settles  into  the  contents  of  the  basin,  and  so  lose  the 
purity  of  the  hills. 

The  well  engineer,  to  whom  the  geology  of  a  district 
is  known,  is  not  disturbed  by  the  apparent  scarcity  of 
good  water,  since  he  has  only  to  sink  a  small  shaft 
into  the  lowest  part  of  the  lining  to  obtain  command 
of  its  entire  contents.  If  the  basin  is  but  partly  filled 
in,  so  that  the  centre  lies  lower  than  the  sides,  as  soon 
as  his  drills  touch  the  water-bearing  stratum  a  fountain 
shows  itself,  in  obedience  to  the  natural  law  that  water 
must  seek  its  own  level. 

London  lies  over  such  a  basin.  Hundreds  of 
Artesian  wells  have  been  driven  down  to  the  lining, 

368 


From  a  photo  lent  by'] 


[Messrs.  C.  Isler  &  Co. 


Bourn  Artesian  XVclI,  near  Spalding^  Lincolnshire. 

This  well  yields  over  5,000,000  gallons  a  da3^  and  may  therefore  be  considered  the  most 
copious  of  its  kind  in  Europe.  It  is  134  feet  deep,  "and  13  inches  in  diameter.  On  the 
right  will  be  seen  some  of  the  rods  used  in  the  boring  of  the  shaft. 

ITo  face  f.  368. 


Artesian  Wells 

which  through  them  yields  many  million  gallons  a 
day  to  the  Metropolis. 

The  reader  will  now  be  able  to  understand  the 
"  spouting-bores  "  of  the  most  arid  tracts  of  Australia 
and  North  Africa.  The  water  that  spirts  from  them 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  keep  alive  millions  of  sheep 
and  cattle  comes  from  hills  that  may  be  hundreds  of 
miles  away,  through  the  natural  aqueduct  formed  by 
two  impervious  strata  enclosing  one  that  has  the 
qualities  of  a  sponge. 

The  depth  at  which  a  sealed  water-bearing  stratum 
exists  varies  enormously  in  different  localities.  Thus 
the  Bourn  Well,  Lincolnshire  (of  which  an  illustra- 
tion is  given),  descended  but  134  feet  before  it  tapped  a 
source  that  poured  over  5,000,000  gallons  a  day  from 
its  orifice  !  In  the  London  area  it  is  necessary  to  bore 
from  300  to  500  feet,  according  to  position.  And 
London  is  well  off  in  this  respect  as  compared  with 
Paris,  where  the  chalk  strata  lie  six  times  as  far  below 
the  surface.  Among  the  most  famous  of  Parisian 
wells  is  that  at  Grenelle,  which  was  seven  years  in 
the  drilling,  a  fifteen  months'  delay  being  caused  by  the 
breakage  of  the  boring  rods  at  a  depth  of  over  1250 
feet.  On  reaching  1500  feet  without  finding  water, 
the  engineers  would  have  abandoned  the  attempt 
but  for  the  representations  of  Arago,  the  famous 
French  astronomer  and  natural  philosopher,  who 
urged  them  to  persevere,  with  the  result  that  at  1798  feet 
the  drills  suddenly  sank  into  a  cavity  from  which  warm 
water  spouted  at  the  rate  of  36,000  gallons  an  hour. 

369  2  A 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

In  1855  another  well,  1923  feet  deep,  was  driven 
down  to  the  same  stratum,  with  a  bottom  diameter  of 
28  inches.  So  great  was  the  pressure  that  the  outflow 
rose  54  feet  into  the  air,  to  the  extent  of  over  5J 
milHon  gallons  a  day. 

Even  these  were  completely  eclipsed  in  profundity 
by  a  well  near  BerUn,  which  attained  a  depth  of 
4194  feet,  piercing  a  salt  deposit  3900  feet  thick. 

Examples  of  such  wells  could  be  multiplied,  as  the 
progress  of  engineering  science  has  made  their  execu- 
tion more  easy  from  year  to  year> 

In  practice  the  sinking  of  Artesian  bores  much 
resembles  the  driving  of  a  petroleum  well,  described 
in  a  previous  chapter.  But  a  water  shaft,  being  in- 
tended for  a  permanency,  and  having  as  its  object  the 
promotion  of  health,  must  be  sunk  with  especial  care, 
and  its  joints  rendered  absolutely  impervious  to  im- 
pure leakage.  By  means  of  Artesian  bored-tube  wells, 
any  depth  and  all  sorts  of  strata  can  be  penetrated. 
There  are  various  methods  of  boring  ;  one  by  con- 
necting lengths  of  iron  rods  together,  to  which  the 
various  tools  are  attached,  and  working  the  whole  up 
and  down  until  the  encountered  matter  has  been 
pounded  into  a  sludge,  which  is  removed,  after  the 

^  In  Queensland  alone  over  800  Artesian  and  sub- Artesian  {t.e.  non- 
flowing)  wells  have  been  sunk.  The  bores  have  an  average  depth  of  11 88 
feet,  but  about  sixty  range  between  3000  and  5045  feet.  The  yield  from 
one  bore  is  6,000,000  gallons  a  day,  from  another  4,500,000  gallons,  while 
sixty  more  contribute  over  1,500,000  gallons.  The  water  from  many  of 
the  bores  has  eaten  out  a  course  for  more  than  40  miles,  but  is  now 
directed  by  proper  channels  to  the  irrigation  of  thousands  of  acres  of  sugar 
and  other  tropical  and  sub-tropical  products. 


Artesian  Wells 

lifting  of  the  rods,  by  a  shell-auger  or  sludge-pump. 
This  is  called  the  percussion  system. 

A  second  is  practically  that  of  the  American  oil 
seeker.  The  rods  are  replaced  by  a  rope,  and  the 
weight  is  concentrated  in  the  drills  and  their  attach- 
ments. 

A  third  method  of  percussion  employs  hollow  in- 
stead of  solid  rods  for  moving  the  auger.  Water  is 
forced  through  the  rods  down  to  the  extremity  of  the 
perforator,  and  on  its  return  to  the  surface  brings 
with  it  all  the  debris.  Whenever  this  principle  can  be 
used  it  proves  most  expeditious  and  economical,  as 
the  tools  need  not  be  removed  from  the  hole  for 
clearing  purposes. 

The  fourth  is  a  true  drilling  method,  since  the 
cutter  remains  in  contact  with  its  work  all  the  time. 
It  is  effected  by  means  of  a  ring  of  diamonds  attached 
to  the  end  of  a  circular  hollow  borer.  The  diamond 
drill  is  a  most  useful  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the 
prospector  as  well  as  the  water  engineer,  because  it 
enables  him  to  rescue  from  the  depths  the  solid  core 
that  the  cutter  has  gradually  absorbed  into  the  hollow 
rods  on  its  downward  path.  By  inspecting  the  cores 
it  is  easy  to  see  almost  at  a  glance  the  nature  of  the 
stratum  being  worked  ;  whereas  under  the  percussion 
systems  the  ^^  slurry  "  comes  up  in  the  form  of  an  un- 
recognisable sand  or  sludge. 

So  great  is  the  hardness  of  the  diamond,  that  it  can 
cut  thousands  of  feet  through  the  hardest  rock  without 
appreciable  damage  to  itself.     Hence  the  well-sinker 

371 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

employs  it  wherever  possible,  putting  it  aside  as  soon 
as  a  soft  or  friable  stratum  is  met,  and  returning  to  his 
percussion  tools.  The  last  two  methods  can  con- 
veniently be  used  conjointly,  as  the  same  set  of  hollow 
rods  will  serve  for  the  two  different  types  of  auger. 
The  smallest  diamond  drills,  worked  by  hand,  take 
cores  about  an  inch  in  diameter  for  holes  up  to  400 
feet  in  depth,  while  the  largest  stock  size  produces  a 
core  16  inches  across  (weighing  upwards  of  3  tons), 
and  can  be  successfully  operated  at  a  depth  of  as 
much  as  a  mile.^ 

The  engineer  lines  the  bore  as  it  sinks  with  steel 
tubes,  connected  by  almost  flush  joints  of  the  same 
metal,  until  he  reaches  the  chalk.  Sometimes,  to  pre- 
vent any  possibility  of  leakage  past  the  tube,  he  first 
inserts  an  outer  lining  which  descends  to  below  the 
permeable  surface  strata.  The  annular  space  between 
the  two  tubes  (both  of  which  reach  to  the  surface) 
is  filled  in  with  concrete,  and  made  absolutely  water- 
tight. On  occasions,  however,  as  soon  as  the  inner 
tube  has  been  firmly  imbedded,  the  outer  is  removed 
for  use  in  another  place. 

With  regard  to  the  quantity  of  water  obtainable  by 
means  of  Artesian  bored-tube  wells,  it  is  unlimited,  as 
the  yield  can  be  increased  by  connecting  a  series  of 

^  In  Upper  Silesia  a  bore  6571  feet  was  sunk  in  search  of  the  coal 
measures.  This  bore  began  with  a  12-inch  diameter,  which  decreased  by 
stages  to  2f  inches.  At  6560  feet  the  weight  of  tubular  boring  rods  was 
1 3^  tons ;  1 1  feet  lower,  4500  feet  of  rods  broke  off  and  fell  to  the  bottom, 
whence  the  engineers  were  unable  to  rescue  them.  This  depth  is  con- 
sidered to  be  about  the  limit  of  present-day  apparatus. 


Artesian  Wells 

tubes  together  to  a  main,  and  attaching  the  pumps 
direct  to  it. 

In  some  cases  the  process  of  well-boring  may 
appear  tedious,  especially  when  deep  layers  of  clay, 
and  quicksand,  overlying  the  water-bearing  seam, 
necessitate  the  lining  of  the  hole  as  each  foot  is 
drilled,  and  also  the  elimination  of  objectionable 
springs  ;  but  even  under  these  conditions  it  is  very 
much  more  expeditious  than  digging  a  5-  or  6-foot 
shaft  on  the  old  plan.  By  keeping  the  lining  tubes 
of  the  same  diameter  from  top  to  bottom  the  drills 
can  be  driven  down  with  wonderful  perpendicularity, 
which  favours  the  subsequent  introduction  of  appa- 
ratus for  pumping. 

When  once  the  water-seam  is  struck  the  action  of 
pumping  tends  to  increase  the  supply,  by  clearing  the 
fissures  and  crevices  of  the  rocks,  which  have  become 
partly  clogged  through  the  continuous  working  of  the 
tools  during  the  operation.  But  should  it  happen 
that  the  supply  shows  signs  of  decreasing,  other 
artificial  means  of  creating  a  freer  water-way  can 
be  resorted  to,  first  among  which  stands  blasting 
with  torpedoes  of  nitro-glycerine.  The  cartridge  is 
made  of  a  tin  case  into  which  the  explosive  is 
pressed  and  hermetically  sealed  by  the  detonator 
placed  on  the  top.  The  cartridge  is  lowered  by 
means  of  an  independent  wire  or  chain,  and  sus- 
pended on  the  spot  where  it  is  to  be  fired.  The 
firing  takes  place  from  the  surface  by  electricity, 
after  every  one  has  stood   clear  of  the  bore-hole, 

373 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

from  which  debris  is  sometimes  shot  with  great 
force. 

In  many  cases  the  results  are  marvellous.  Thus 
at  some  cement  works  near  Rochester,  a  single 
gelatine  cartridge,  weighing  i8  lbs.,  was  exploded 
at  307  feet  from  the  surface  in  the  lower  greensand 
formation,  which  at  this  spot  is  composed  of  rocks 
and  compact  sands,  with  the  result  that  20,000  gal- 
lons per  hour  are  now  obtained,  whereas  no  supply 
existed  previously. 

If  the  water  flows  up  spontaneously  the  engineer 
is  spared  further  trouble ;  but  it  more  generally 
happens,  especially  in  districts  where  a  large  number 
of  bore-holes  have  lowered  the  "  head  "  of  water  in 
the  chalk  or  sand  from  which  supplies  are  drawn, 
that  it  becomes  necessary  to  employ  artificial  methods 
of  raising  the  water  to  the  surface.  Every  one  is 
acquainted  with  the  common  lift-pump,  and  this  is 
often  used  in  Artesian  wells.  But  a  much  more 
effective  and  economical  device  is  the  "  air-lift." 

This  system  is  at  work  in  America  and  on  the 
Continent,  and  a  number  of  permanent  installations 
have  been  laid  down  in  England.  The  general 
arrangement  is  simplicity  itself.  A  powerful  steam- 
engine  compresses  air  into  a  receptacle,  from  which 
it  is  conducted  through  a  small  pipe  down  the  bore- 
hole to  some  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 
It  then  turns  upwards  a  few  inches,  ending  in  a  nozzle 
that  enters  a  second  and  larger  pipe  rising  to  the 
surface,  this   pipe   being  open  at  the   bottom.      The 

374 


Artesian  Wells 

air  rushing  up  the  larger  pipe  at  a  pressure  of  loo  lbs. 
to  the  square  inch,  or  more,  in  proportion  to  the 
height  of  the  Hft,  raises  the  well  water  with  it,  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  of  a  steam  injector  forcing 
water  into  a  boiler  against  a  high  steam  tension. 

The  simplicity  of  the  whole  system  and  its  advan- 
tages are  obvious.  It  is  evident  that  sandy  particles 
raised  with  the  water  will  not  damage  a  plant  free 
from  valves  or  moving  parts.  Once  fixed,  the  air  and 
water  pipes  need  no  attention  whatever,  as  the  motive 
machinery  is  all  above  ground.  Pumping  plant  of 
the  ordinary  character  cannot  be  duplicated,  for  the 
reason  that  one  bore-hole  will  not  hold  two  sets  of 
deep  well  pumps  ;  but  with  the  compressed-air  system 
emergencies  can  be  provided  for  by  the  addition  of  a 
second  compressor  and  reservoir. 

For  limited  depths  and  supplies,  and  in  strata  which, 
though  perhaps  hard  and  compact,  are  not  composed 
of  actual  rock,  the  "  driven  tube  "  forms  a  most  useful 
well,  capable  of  being  sunk  at  great  speed  to  a  suffi- 
cient distance  to  avoid  risk  of  surface  contamination. 

The  well  consists  of  a  hollow  wrought-iron  tube 
about  ij  to  6  inches  in  diameter,  composed  of  any 
number  of  3-  or  lo-foot  lengths,  according  to  the  depth 
required.  The  most  important  part  of  the  tube  is  the 
point,  a  hollow  spike  2J  feet  long,  perforated  all  round. 

The  spot  for  driving  having  been  chosen,  a  truly 
vertical  hole  is  first  made  in  the  ground  with  a  crow- 
bar, and  the  point  and  first  length  of  tubing  inserted. 
A  driving-cap,  connected  rigidly  to  the  bottom  of  a 

375 


Romance  of  Modern  Engineering 

vertical  steel  rod,  is  then  slipped  over  the  top  of  the 
pipe  to  receive  the  blows  of  the  heavy  cylindrical 
weight  which  moves  up  and  down  outside  the  rod  just 
mentioned,  hoisted  by  ropes  working  through  pulleys 
in  a  tripod  connected  to  the  top  end  of  the  rod. 

This  form  of  well-sinking  is  generally  similar  to 
ordinary  pile-driving,  except  in  so  far  as  the  pile  is  a 
single  continuous  body,  while  the  tube  is  constantly 
added  to,  length  by  length,  as  the  point  penetrates 
deeper  into  the  stratum. 

When  water  shows  itself  a  pump  is  rigged  to  the 
pipe,  and  suction  applied  to  raise  the  fluid  to  the 
surface.  Then  it  is  suddenly  allowed  to  sink  back 
into  the  tube,  forcing  obstructive  matter  from  the 
clogged  apertures  of  the  point.  This  operation  of 
''tilting,"  or  causing  the  water  to  be  played  in  and 
out  of  the  perforations,  is  most  important,  and  if 
improperly  or  insufficiently  done  may  result  in  the 
choking  of  the  well. 

The  well-borer  has  an  armoury  full  of  tools  as  varied 
and  weird-looking  as  those  of  a  dentist ;  for  like  the 
latter  he  must  be  prepared  for  all  sorts  of  operations 
that  may  seldom  occur,  yet  are  unavoidable  when 
they  do.  His  drills  assume  all  shapes.  Some  are 
V-ended,  others  square-ended ;  some  of  T-shaped 
section,  others  straight-sided,  for  polishing  up  the 
bore  ;  or  spiral,  to  attack  gravel  and  sand  ;  or  fitted 
with  springs,  so  that  they  may  enlarge  the  bore  below 
the  pipe,  and  yet  be  easily  removed.  Here  is  a  weapon 
that  resembles  a  large  corkscrew  for  recovering  a  rod 

376 


Artesian  Wells 

from  the  depths  of  a  well ;  and  another,  called  a 
"  crow's-foot,"  that  serves  the  same  purpose ;  and  yet 
a  third,  styled  a  "bell-box,"  that  is  let  down  on  to 
broken  rods,  passes  over  a  joint,  and  grips  it  fast  when 
drawn  upwards. 

Without  these  multifarious  devices  many  a  well 
would  have  to  be  abandoned  after  it  has  been  sunk 
for  hundreds  of  feet,  and  with  it  a  great  quantity  of 
pounds,  shillings,  and  pence. 

Note.— -The  author  is  indebted  to  Messrs.  C.  Isler  &  Co.,  of  Bear 
Lane,  Southwark,  for  much  of  the  information  here  given. 


THE   END 


Printed  by  Ballantyne,  Hanson  <&»  Co. 
Edinburgh  &'  London 

377 


The 

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TA   19      .?/72 
V/illiams,   Archibald 


s?^f- 


AUTHOR 


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BOSTON   COLLEGE  LIBRARY 

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